LIBRARY  FAOUTY 


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ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


BY 

C.  H.  GRANDGENT, 

PROFESSOR  OF  ROMANCE  LANGUAGES  IN  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY, 


Revised  and  Enlarged 


BOSTON,  U.S.A.: 

D.  C.  HEATH  &   CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 

1910 


Copyright^  1887  and  igo4, 
By  C.  H.  GRANDGENT. 


MM 
13  04- 

PREFACE. 


Tffls  volume  is  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  put  into  convenient 
^   form  and  the  smallest  possible  compass  all  the  grammar  that  the 

CO 

^  ordinary  student  of  Itahan  will  need.  Short  as  the  book  is,  it  con- 
Tt*  tains  some  paragraphs  which  beginners  will  probably  skip  :  the 
^  longer  lists  of  words  and  endings,  and  a  great  part  of  the  chapters 
5  on  suffixes  and  irregular  verbs  will  be  useful  mainly  for  reference. 
The  vocabularies  cover  the  twenty-one  exercises;  they  are  not 
tt:  intended  to  include  words  explained  in  the  notes,  nor  proper 
m  names  that  are  exactly  the  same  in  Italian  and  in  English. 
^  I  have  endeavored  to  make  the  book  represent  the  Italian  lau- 
ti- guage  as  it  is  spoken  and  written  at  the  present  day  ;  the  exercises 
£  are  taken  chiefly  from  reading-books  lately  prepared  for  Tuscan 
g  schools.  Still,  I  have  tried  to  give  also  as  many  obsolete  forms  as 
students  of  the  Italian  classics  will  require. 

It  has  been  my  aim  throughout  to  make  the  rules  clear  for  all 
classes  of  pupils,  even  for  those  ignorant  of  other  foreign  languages, 
provided  they  understand  the  technical  words  commonly  used  in 
grammars.  With  this  object  in  view,  I  have  ascribed  to  the  Ital- 
ian vowels  the  pronunciation  of  the  English  ones  that  are  most 
like  them  :  an  accurate  description  of  the  Itahan  sounds  would,  I 
fear,  prove  confusing  to  beginners  who  have  had  no  training  in 
phonetics.     It  will  be  easy  for  the  instructor  to  explain  not  only 


;jrK^ 


251837 


IV  PREFACE. 

the  vowels,  but  some  of  the  consonants,  and  the  division  o! 
words  into  syllables,  much  better  than  can  be  done  in  a  book 
like  this. 

The  authorities  I  have  consulted  most  are  the  dictionaries  of 
Fanfani,  Rigutini  and  Fanfani,  Fomari  {Nuovo  B azzanni),  and 
Tommaseo  and  Bellini.  I  have  made  but  little  use  of  other  gram- 
mars ;  I  am,  however,  indebted  to  Toscani  for  some  ideas  and  a 
few  of  my  examples.  The  chapters  on  syntax,  and  the  treatment 
of  irregular  verbs,  pronouns,  suffixes,  and  the  plural  of  words  in 
-co  and  -go  are  almost  entirely  the  result  of  originai  work. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  to  Professor  Nash, 
of  Harvard,  to  my  friend  and  teacher,  Sig.  Filippo  Orlando,  of 
Florence,  and  to  the  gentlemen  who  assisted  me  in  correcting 
the  proof-sheets  ;  and  I  wish  above  all  to  thank  Professor  Sheldon, 
of  Harvard,  and  Professor  Bendelari,  of  Yale,  without  whose  aid  and 
encouragement  I  should  scarcely  have  ventured  to  offer  this  book 
to  the  public. 

Cambridge,  September,  1887. 

NOTE   TO   THE    REVISED    EDITION. 

To  facilitate  the  use  of  this  book  with  classes  I  have  included 
in  it  a  full  set  of  Lessons  and  Exercises,  the  latter  being  taken  in 
large  part  from  my  Italian  Composition.  The  Italian  texts  at  the 
end  of  the  chapters,  in  the  body  of  the  Grammar,  can  be  used  to 
advantage  at  the  outset  of  the  course  for  practice  in  pronuncia- 
tion and  reading  at  sight.  The  English  exercises  in  the  body  of 
the  book  should  be  reserved  for  reviews. 

Cambridge,  May,  1904. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 

» 

PAGE 

Lessons  and  Exercises ix-xxxiv 

Pronunciation 1-7 

Articles  7-11 

The  Definite  Article 7-10 

The  Indefinite  Article c lo 

Exercises  I,  2   II 

Nouns  11-17 

Gender 12-13 

Nvunber   13-16 

Exercises  3,  4  16-17 

Adjectives 18-23 

Gender  and  Number 18-20 

Comparison 20-22 

Exercises  5,  6    22-23 

AUGMENTATIVES  AND  DIMINUTIVES  ;    NUMERALS 23-29 

Augmentative  and  Diminutive  Endings 23-25 

Numerals 25-28 

Exercises  7,  8    28-29 

Demonstrative,  Interrogative,  Relative,  and  Possessive  Pro- 
nouns    30-35 

Demonstrative  Pronouns dP-Z^ 

Interrogative  Pronoims   31 

Relative  Pronouns Z^-ZZ 

Possessive  Pronouns 33""34 

Exercises  9,  lO   35 

Personal  Pronouns 36-46 

Conjunctive  Forms 36-40 


VI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Disjunctive  Forms 40-42 

Forms  of  Address 43-44 

Exercises  1 1,  12 44-46 

AUXILIARY  Verbs 47-55 

Auxiliaries  of  Voice  and  Tense 47-53 

Essere 47 

Avere 48 

Modal  Auxiliaries 53-54 

Exercises  13,  14 54-55 

Regular  and  Irregular  Verbs 55-65 

The  Regular  Verb 56-59 

First  Conjugation   56-57 

Second  and  Third  Conjugations 57-58 

Fourth  Conjugation   58-59 

The  Irregular  Verb 60-63 

Porre 60-61 

Exercises  15,  16 63-65 

Moods  and  Tenses 65-74 

Infinitive  and  Participle 65-68 

Past,  Present,  and  Future    68-69 

Conditional 69 

Subjunctive   69-72 

Exercises  17,  18 72-74 

Conjunctions,  Prepositions,  and  Adverbs 74-84 

Conjunctions 74-76 

Prepositions 76-80 

Adverbs 80-82 

Exercises  19,  20   83-84 

Indefinite  Pronouns   84-87 

Exercise  21 87 

List  of  Irregular  Verbs  arranged  according  to  Conjugation  88-100 
First  Conjugation    89-90 

J        Second  Conjugation 90-93 


CONTENTS.  VU 

PAGE 

Third  Conjugation 93-98 

Present  Regular 93-96 

Present  Irregular 96-98 

Fourth  Conjugation 99-100 

Present  Regular 99 

Present  Irregular 99-100 

Alphabetical  List  of  Irregular  and  Defective  Verbs 101-105 

Italla.n-English  Vocabulary 107-1 14 

English-Itallan  Vocabulary 115-121 

Appendix 123-127 

Additional  Notes  on  Pronunciation 1 23-1 25 

Inflections  of  the  Voice 126-127 

Index 129-132 


LESSONS   AND   EXERCISES. 

Note.  —  The  following  forty-one  lessons  furnish,  in  the  form  of  refer^ 
ences  to  the  body  of  the  Gra7n?nar,  a  course  of  study  in  the  rudiments 
of  Italian.  The  numbers  refer  to  paragraphs  :  they  include  all  sub- 
divisions  in  the  sa?ne  type,  all  examples,  and  all  paradigms,  belonging  to 
them  ;  but  they  do  not  comprise  subdivisions  in  finer  print  unless  these 
are  expressly  mentioned.  The  exercise  following  each  lesson  is  to  be 
used  in  connection  with  it  ;  the  exercises  in  the  body  of  the  book  are 
reserved  for  review  work. 

LESSON   1. 

Pronunciation  :   1  ;  2  ;  2,  ^  ;  3  ;  4,  including  the  fine  print 

except  S,  tì^j  6  j  6;  7;  8.     Pronounce  all  the  examples  several 

times. 

EXERCISE  I. 
Pronounce  this  text  :  — 

Quando  è  fréddo  è  inverno.     Neil'  inverno  cade  la  néve,  e 

When      it-is      cold     it-is    winter.  In-the       winter       falls    the    snow,   and 

gli  àlberi  sono  sènza  foglie    e   i  giardini  non  hanno  fióri.     Dòpo, 

the      trees        are     without   leaves  and  the  gardens        have-no        flowers.      Later, 

r  ària  comincia  a  riscaldare,  nelle  campagne  si  vedono  1'  èrbe 

the    air  begins  to    grow-warm,     in-the  fields  are-seen  grass 

e  i  fióri,  negli    òrti    nàscono  i  baccèlli,  i  pisèlH,  pòi  le  ciHège  ; 

and    flowers,  in-the  gardens  co7ne-forth      string-beans,        ^eas,      then  cherries; 

gli  uccèlli  cantano,  non  si  patisce     piìi     fréddo,  si  sta  veramente 

the      birds  sing,  we-do-not-suffer    any-more      cold,        we-are         really 

bène,       e  allóra  è  primavèra.     Finisce  la  primavèra,  comincia 

comfortable,  and  then    it-is         spring.  Ends       the         spring,  begins 

il  caldo  ;  il  sóle  brucia  ;  nella  campagna  si  vedono  le  spighe  del 

the     heat;    the    sun        burns;      in-the        country  we-see  the     ears        of 

grano,  ci  sono  tante  bèlle  frutta,  mèle,  pére,  susine,  albicòcche, 

corn,   there    are       many      fine      fruits,      apples,    pears,     plums,  apricots, 

pèsche.     Quésto  tèmpo  si  chiama  estate.     Il  caldo  va   via,     e 

peaches.  This  time         is-called  summer.      The    heat     goes  away,  and 

ritorna     1'  ària    cóme    nella    primavèra  ;    le   viti    sono  càriche 

becomes-again   the  air         as  in-the  spring;  the    vines    are  laden 

d'  uva,      i     fichi  cominciano  a  darci  i  lóro  dólci  frutti  ;  ma  a 

with  grapes,  the  fig-trees         begin  to  give-us        their    sweet     fruit  ;      but 

pòco  a  pòco    si    rifa    un  pò'  fréddo,  gli  àlberi  pèrdono  le  fòglie, 

little  by   little   it-grows-again  a     little       cold,       the     trees  lose        their  leaves, 

il  vènto  soffia  assai  ;  e  quésto  tèmpo  si  chiama  autunno. 

\fie    wind       blows      hard;   and     this  time  is-called  autumn. 


X  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

LESSON  2. 
Review  Lesson  i. 

EXERCISE  2. 
Pronounce  this  text  :  — 

1.  Vi      parlerò      di  Vittorio  Alfièri,  e    ne  ammirerete  la  fòrte 

I-shall-speak-to-you    of      Victor       Alfieri,    and  you-will-admire-his  strong 

e  costante  volontà.     Égli  èra  nàto  nel  mille  settecènto  quaranta- 
nni    firm  will.  He     was  born      in  J74g 

nòve  di  nòbile  famiglia  piemontése  M    èra    cónte.     Allóra    sì 

of     a-noble        family  of-Piedmont  ;         he-was  a-count.  Then     people 

credeva  che  bastasse  èssere  nòbili     per       valére  qualcòsa  ;  perciò 

believed     that  it-sufficed      to-be      noble    in-order-to  be-worth   something  ;    therefore 

i  più  dèi  nòbili  non  istudiàvano/  o  studiavano  -  alla  pèggio,  perchè 

tnost  of-the   nobles         did-not-sttidy ,  or        studied  carelessly,        because 

tanto  la  nobiltà  dava  lóro  diritto  alle  càriche  e  àgli  onori,  anche 

their-mere-rank         gave    them     a-right      to  offices    and    to      honors,      even 

se   èrano   ignoranti.     L'  Alfièri,  da  giovinétto,  fu  mésso  a  studiare 

if  they-were     ignorant.  Alfieri,        as  a-lad,         was     put      to       study 

all'  Accadèmia  di  Torino  ;  ma  égli  dòpo  qualche  anno  ne  usci 

ai-the      Academy         of      Turin;       but      he       after  a-few-years  came-out 

sènza   saper  ^   nulla   di   nulla,  non   ostante   che   avesse   un  bèl- 

without    knowing         anything-at-all,         nottviìhstanding    that       he-had  a   fine 

V  ingégno,  perchè  né  anche  l' ingégno  può  valére  sènza  lo  stùdio. 

mind,  because    not      even  talent  can      avail     without  study. 

Uscito     pertanto   dall'    Accadèmia    viaggiò      per  l' Italia,  la 

Haviftg-cojne-out,     then,     from-the      Academy,      he-travelled  througJi       Italy, 

Frància  e  T  Inghilterra. 

France,  and         England. 

2.  Giùnto       all'   età  di  véntisètte  anni,     aprì,  cóme  sì  dice, 

Raving-arrived  at-the  age    of  ^  27  years,  he-opened,    as      people-say, 

gli  òcchi,  e    s'  accòrse  della  sua  ignoranza.    Vittorio  si  vergognò  * 

his-eyes,    and  became-aware      of       his       ignorance.  Victor       was-thoroughly- 

altaménte  di  sé   stésso;    sperò   che   studiando   avrebbe   potuto^ 

ashamed        of         himself;        he-hoped    that      by-studying  he-might 

giovare  all'  onore  d'  Itàha  ;  e  allóra  fece    il  generóso^  propòsito 

add        to-the    glory      of      Italy  ;    and   then   he-made  the        lofty  resolve 

di  mutar  ^  vita  :    determinò  di  abbandonare  gli   usi    e    i  costumi 

to    change    his-life  :   he-deterfnifted  to  give-up  the  habits  and  the   customs 

della  nòbile  gioventù  dèi  suoi  tèmpi,  di  lasciar^   tutto       per 

of-the        noble  yojtth  of       his       times,      to        leave    everytJiing  in-order-to 

istudiàre.^     A   far^  dèi  buòni  propòsiti  ci  vuòl^  pòco;    il    fòrte 

study.  To   make  good       resolutions      takes       but-little  ;  the  diflculiy 

sta  nel  mantenérli.     E  non  è  mica  un  affàr  di  nulla,  quando  ùn^ 

lies     in      keeping-them.    And  it-is-not    at-all   an        easy-matter,  when  a 


LESSONS   AND   EXERCISES.  xi 

persóna   per   lungo   córso  di  anni  ha  contratto    cèrte   abitùdini 

person     through  a-long     course     of    years   has        fortned        certain        habits 

e    cèrti    costumi,    e     si     è     avvezzata    a   vivere   in   tal   mòdo, 

a7id  certain     customs,    and    has-accustomed-hiìnself    to      living      in     such    a-way, 

non  è  mica,  dico,  un  affàr  di  nulla  un  bèi  giórno  mutar     vita, 

it-is-not    at-all,     I-say,    an  easy-matter        one  fine        day       to-change   one's-ii/e, 

e  diventar  uòmo  tutto  affatto  divèrso  da  quello  di  prima. 

and     become        a-man  entirely  different  from      one's  former-self. 

3.    Grandi  sfòrzi  dovè   fare  Vittorio  Alfièri  per   mutar    vita: 

Great        efforts  Victor- A  Ifieri-had-to-make  to        change    his-life  : 

vi  basti  sapere  che  siccóme  non  si  sentiva  tanta    fòrza  d'  ànimo 

suffice-it-to-say        that  as  he-did-not-feel     so-much  strength  of    mind 

da  proseguire^  a  studiare,  allorché  per  le  sue  abitùdini  avrebbe 

as-to        continue         to         study,  when  from-force-of-habit  he-would- 

sentito   il  desidèrio  ^  d'  uscir  ^  di  casa  e  di  andare  a    divertirsi, 

have-felt  the        desire  of  going-out  and  going      to  amuse-himself 

r  Alfièri   si   faceva   dal   servitóre   legare   alla   poltróna.     È   véro 

Alfieri       had-himself  tied-by-his-servant  to-his    arm-chair.      It-is    true 

che  a  pòco  a  pòco  la  volontà   prése  ^  il   di   sópra  :    a   pòco  a 

that  little     by     little     his         will  got  the    upper-hand:  little    by 

pòco,  s'  intènde,  V  Alfièri  non  ebbe  più   bisógno  di  ricórrere  a 

little,    you-under stand.     Alfieri  had-no-more  need  of      resorting     to 

quésti  mèzzi  ^'';    e   ciò  appunto  pròva  quanto  è  véro  che  nulla 

this         means  ;      and  this         just  proves  how-true-it-is         that     nothing 

è  difficile  a    chi    vuole.     Così^  1'  Alfièri  che  si  mise  a  studiare 

is        hard      to  him-who  wills.  Thus  Alfieri,      who      began        to        study 

a  véntisètte    anni,   pure    potè    arrivare    ad   èssere   il   più    bravo 

at  27  years,      was-yet-able        to-come         to  be         the         best 

scrittóre   di  tragèdie   dell'  ItàHa;    ed    è    una    delle   glòrie   del 

writer        of     tragedies         in  Italy  ;       and  he-is    one       of-the     glories       of 

nòstro  paese.  ^     Ma  se  quando  aveva  fatto  il  proponiménto  di 

our         country.        But      if       when         he-had    m.ade   the  resolve  to 

mutar  vita    e    di    studiare,    1'  Alfièri,    conoscendo    quanti    sfòrzi 

change  his-life  and   to  study.  Alfieri,  knowing  what        efforts 

gH  ci  sarebbero  voluti^  per   mantenére  la  proméssa,  invéce  di 

it-would-require  to  keep  his       promise,        instead      of 

farsi    legare     alla  poltróna   avesse   détto  :    non   mi  riesce,   né 

\aving-himself-tied  to-his  arin-chair,        had  said  '*  I-can't,"  neither 

égU    sarebbe     diventato    quell'     uòmo     sómmo     che     fu,      né 

would-he-have-become  that  great-man  that   he-was^    nor 

V  Italia  potrebbe  óra  vantare  un  così*  gran  poèta. 

could-Italy  now     boast-of        such-a         great       poet. 

1  See  4,  S,  e.         ^  The  verb  is  studiare  :  in  Italian  a  word  beginning  with 
*  plus  another  consonant,  if  it  is  immediately  preceded  by  a  word  ending  in  a 


XU  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

consonant,  prefixes  i  to  the  s  ;  Italians  are  averse  to  a  group  of  three  conso- 
nants of  which  the  middle  one  is  s.  ^  An  infinitive  often  drops  its  final  e  in 
the  interior  of  a  phrase.  ^  The  reflexive  verb  vergognarsi  ('  to  shame  one's 
self)  means  'to  be  ashamed.'  ^  The  compound  conditional,  in  idiomatic 
Italian,  is  very  often  used  in  place  of  the  simple  conditional  :  avrebbe  potuto 
giovare  (*he  might  have  helped')  really  means  'he  might  help'  ;  so  ci  sareb- 
bero voluti  ('  there  would  have  been  required  ')  means  *  there  would  be  needed.' 
^  a  vuole,  shortened  here  to  ci  vuol,  means  literally  '  there  requires  '  or  *  there 
is  needed.'  7  See  4,  S,  b.  8  See  4,  S,  a.  ^  S  as  in  '  mason  '  (4,  S,  d). 
10  See  4,  Z,  a. 

LESSON  3. 

The  inflection  of  essere  :  53,  a. 

EXERCISE  3. 

[Based  on  Exercise  i,  p.  ix.] 

I.  Where ^  are  the  birds?  —  2.  It  was  winter.  —  3.  We^  are 
in  the  spring.  —  4.  The  vines  will  be  laden  with  grapes.  —  5. 
Where  ^  would  you  ^  be  in  the  winter  ?  —  6.  You  ^  are  without 
flowers.  —  7.  Without  the  sun  it  would  be  cold. — 8.  The 
flowers  were  in  the  fields.  —  9.  Where  ^  were  you  ^  in  the  spring  ? 

—  10.  I  ^  was  in  the  country. 

1  I^ave.         2  These  personal  pronouns  need  not  be  translated. 

LESSON  4. 

The  inflection  of  avere  :  53,  ò. 

EXERCISE  4. 
[Based  on  Exercise  i,  p.  ix.] 

I.  I  *  have  no  flowers.  —  2.  When  will  they  '  have  leaves  ?  — 
3.  He  ^  had  apples  and  pears.  —  4.  You  1  would  have  no  leaves. 

—  5.  The  spring  has   no   snow. — 6.    Have  you^  the   ears   of 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XUl 

com  ?  —  7.  They  ^  had  no  figs.  —  8.  When  will  he  ^  have  the 
birds  ?  —  9.  I  ^  should  have  plums  and  peaches.  —  10.  The  trees 
had  no  leaves. 

1  These  personal  pronouns  need  not  be  translated. 
LESSON  5. 

Articles  and  nouns  :  9  ;  10,  ayb\  11  ;  12  ;  12,  a  ;  14, 

ayb\  15;  17;  18;  19  (in  general,  nouns  in  o  are  mas- 
culine, nouns  in  a  or  u  are  feminine)  ;  22  ;  23  ;  24  ;  25  ; 
51,  2. 

EXERCISE  5. 

[The  words  are  to  be  found  in  the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 
Grammar.l 

I.  A  comer.  —  2.  Some  corners.  —  3.  Some  rooms.  —  4.  The 
corner  of  a  room.  —  5.  We  are  in  the  corner  of  the  room.  —  6.  A 
man  in  a  room. —  7.  The  man  is  in  the  room.  —  8.  The  men  are 
in  the  rooms.  —  9.  I  have  a  gun.  —  10.  You  have  the  gun. — 
II.  With  the  guns.  —  12.  A  city.  —  13.  To  the  city  and  for  the 
cities.  —  14.  Some  birds  on  a  branch.  —  15.  The  birds  are  on 
the  branches  of  the  trees.  — 16.  The  roots  of  the  trees  in  the 
wood.  — 17.  The  days  of  the  month.  — 18.  The  months  of  a 
year.  —  19.  The  weeks  of  the  year.  —  20.  For  the  countries  of 
the  earth. — 21.  The  prisons  in  the  cities  of  the  kings.  —  22. 
With  the  son  of  the  uncle.^  —  23.  The  uncles  ^  are  with  the 
fathers  of  the  boys.  —  24.  The  poem  ^  is  written  *  by  the  boy's 
uncle.  —  25.  The  words  are  in  the  poem  ^  written^  by  the  two 
poets.* 

1  Zw.        2  Foima,  m.        3  Scrifto.        *  Foéia. 

LESSON   6. 

A 

Essere  and  avere  :  53,  a,b\  54  ;  76  ;  80,  i. 


XIV  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  6. 

[Based  on  the  first  paragraph  of  Exercise  2,  p.  x.] 

I.  He  is  a  count.  —  2.  They  are  noble.  —  3.  You  would  be  a 
count.  —  4.  We  shall  be  noble.  —  5.  You  have  been  ignorant.  — 
6.  We  shall  have  had  the  office.^ —  7.  They  had  had  offices  and 
honors.  —  8.  You  are  ignorant  because  you  have  not  studied.^ 
—  9.  He  had^  the  office  ^  because  he  had  been  a  count.  —  10. 
People  don't  think*  that  he  has^  a  great  mind.  — 11.  He  has 
had  the  office,^  and  therefore  he  has  not  studied.^ — 12.  You 
would  have  had  the  office/  if  you  had*  studied.*^ — 13.  People 
thought  that  he  was®  born  in  1749. —  14.  If  we  had*  studied,'^ 
we  should  not  be  ignorant.  — 15.  If  you  were*  ignorant,  you 
would  be  put'  to  study.  — 16.  Even  if  we  are  ignorant,  ye  shall 
have  offices  and  honors,  because  we  have  been  noble.  —  17. 
Although  they  are  ^  of  noble  family,  they  are  not  ignorant,  be- 
cause they  have  studied.^  —  18.  I  was  *  noble,  but  I  was  ^  put 
to  study,  because,  as  a  lad,  I  had  ^  a  great  mind.  —  19.  Al- 
though we  had  *  not  travelled,®  we  should  not  have  been  igno- 
rant, if  we  had  *  studied.^ —  20.  If  you  have  travelled,'  you  will 
have  offices  and  honors,  although  you  have  ^  not  studied,^  be- 
cause you  will  not  be  ignorant. 

1  La  càrica.  2  Studiato.  »  Preterite.  *  Non  si  créde  (see  86).  ^  Pres. 
subj.    6  Imp.  subj.    '  Méssi^  plural.    ^  imp.  ind.    ^  Viaggiato. 

LESSON  7. 

Regular  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  :  69;  59,  a, 

EXERCISE  7. 

[Based  on  Exercise  i,  p.  ix.] 
I.  The  birds  sang  in  the  spring.  —  2.  Let  us  begin  to  sing.  — 
3.  In  the  winter  the  wind  will  blow  hard.  —  4.  When  will  they 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XV 

begin  to  give  us  their  sweet  fruit  ?  —  5.  The  sun  would  burn  the 
vines.  —  6.  When  will  you  sing? — 7.  The  wind  began  to  blow. 
—  8.  I  burn  the  ears  of  corn.  — 9.  I  began  to  sing.  —  10.  Sing 
when  the  wind  blows.  —  11.  I  begin  to  speak. —  12.  If^  he 
sang,^  I  should  not  speak.  —  13.  If  ^  they  spoke,'^  we  should 
begin  to  sing.  —  14.  Although*  the  wind  blows*  hard,  we  shall 
sing.  —  15.  Although*  you  sing,*  we  begin  to  speak. 

1  Se.        2  Imp.  subj.        ^  Benché.        ^  Pres.  subj. 


LESSON  a 

Regular  verbs  of  the  second  and  third  conjugations  :  60 
(the  list  of  verbs  at  the  top  of  p.  58  need  not  be  learned). 

EXERCISE  8. 
[Based  on  Exercise  i,  p.  ix.] 

I.  The  flowers  fall  in  the  winter. —  2.  The  trees  lost  their 
leaves.  —  3.  He  sees  the  sun.  —  4.  Do  you  believe  that  ^  I  see  ^ 
the  cherries  Ì  —  5.  He  did  not  believe  that  ^  the  vines  lost  ^  their 
sweet  fruit.  —  6.  I  do  not  believe  that  ^  you  fall.^ — 7.  See  the 
trees  :  they  have  lost  their  leaves.  —  8.  We  shall  lose  the  flowers. 
—  9.  When  I  see  the  birds,  it  is  spring. — 10.  Would  you  believe 
that  he  had  *  seen  the  trees  without  flowers  ?  —  11.  The  peas 
will  come  forth*  in  the  spring.  —  12.  They  would  not  come 
forth  *  without  the  sun.  — 13.  When  the  snow  goes  away,  we  see 
the  peas  come  forth  *  in  the  fields. 

1  Che.        2  Pres.  subj.        ^  Imp.  subj.        *  The  infinitive  is  nàscere. 


LESSON   9. 

Regular  verbs  of  the  fourth  conjugation  :  61. 


XVI  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  9. 

[Based  on  Exercise  i,  p.  ix.] 

I.  We  felt  the  cold.  —  2.  Do  you  feel  the  wind?  —  3.  The 
winter  and  the  spring  will  end.  —  4.  The  birds  would  not  feel 
the  heat.  —  5.  The  flowers  suffer  ^  when  the  wind  blows.  —  6. 
The  birds  suffered  in  the  winter.  —  7.  I  do  not  suffer  any  more 
heat.  —  8.  I  do  not  believe  that  ^  he  suffers.^  —  9.  Do  you  be- 
lieve that  ^  he  feels  ^  the  cold  ì  —  10.  The  summer  and  the  autumn 
ended. 

1  CAe.        2  Soffrire  is  inflected  in  the  pres.  like  sentire.        ^  Pres.  subj. 

LESSON  10. 

Adjectives  and  pronouns  :  26  ;  27  ;  28  ;  29  ;  30  ;  31  ; 
33  ;  43  ;  43,  ^  ;  44  ;  45. 

EXERCISE  10. 

[The  words  are  to  be  found  in  the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 

Grammar.^ 

I.  The  poor  are  always  unfortunate.  —  2.  The  high  trees  are 
far  from  the  great  cities.  —  3.  The  most  beautiful  plant  has  the 
smallest  flower.  —  4.  The  largest  villa  is  mine,  the  smallest  is 
his,  and  the  lowest  is  theirs.  —  5.  Many  good  fathers  are  now 
poorer,  but  their  boys  and  their  girls  ^  are  always  honest.  — 
6.  Who  were  the  good  girls  ^  who  spoke  to  the  unhappy  sailor  ? 

—  7.  Whose  are  the  big  clubs  of  which  the  little  boy  spoke .? 

—  8.  Which  are  the  hard'^  lessons  ^  that  our  poor  boys  finished 
in  two  days  ?  —  9.  What  is  the  beautiful  story  *  her  little  girls  1 
believe  ?  —  10.  In  what  far  part  of  your  great  city  are  the  rooms 
of  the  honest  merchant,  to  whom  the  largest  ships  of  the  world 
belong  *  ? 

1  Ragazza.        2  Difficile.      ^  Lezióne,  f.       *  Stòria,  i.       ^  Appartengono, 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XVIl 

LESSON  11. 

Parlare  and  crédere  :  59  ';  59,  a  ;  60  (the  list  of  verbs  at 
the  top  of  p.  58  need  not  be  learned)  ;  62;  77;  77,  ^  ;  54,  d. 

EXERCISE  II. 

[Based  on  the  first  two  paragraphs  of  Exercise  2,  p.  x.     Viaggiare  is  conju- 
gated with  avére^ 

I.  I  shall  not  leave  Italy.  —  2.  They  determined^  to  become 
noble.  —  3.  They  would  not  leave  France.  —  4.  He  will  be 
ashamed  of  himself. —  5.  Let  them  leave  ^  England.  —  6.  It  is 
enough  to  abandon  certain  habits. — 7.  He  doesn't  believe  that 
Alfieri  is  ashamed  '^  of  himself.  —  8.  They  did  not  believe  ^  that 
w^e  were  studying.* — 9.  We  hoped*  that  they  would  travel 
through  France.  —  10.  We  do  not  believe  that  they  are  study- 
ing.^—  II.  They  speak  to  you  of  Victor,  and  you  admire  his 
strong  will. —  12.  I  shall  not  believe  that  you  have  ^  changed 
your  way  of  living.  — 13.  If  we  spoke  *  to  you  of  Victor,  you 
would  admire  his  firm  will.  —  14.  Do  not  believe  that  the  cus- 
toms of  aristocratic  youth  increase '^  the  glory  of  Italy.  —  15. 
Study,  and  you  will  become  an  entirely  different  man  from  what 
you  are.  —  16.  We  abandoned  ^  the  habits  of  aristocratic  youth, 
and  travelled^  through  France  and  England. —  17.  Let  him  not 
believe  ^  that  we  admire  ^  the  customs  of  his  times.  —  18.  They 
think  that  studying  is  enough  ^  to  change  one's  mode  of  life.  — 
19.  If  I  believed  *  that  studying  was  ^  enough,  I  should  abandon 
the  customs  of  youth.  — 20.  If  I  had  ^  not  travelled,  I  should  not 
believe  that  most  of  the  aristocrats  leave  ^  everything  in  order 
to  study. 

1  Preterite.  2  Pres,  subj.  ^  j^p^  ind.  4  jmp.  subj. 

LESSON  12. 

Regular  verbs  :  59  ;  59,  ^  ;  60  ;  61  ;  62  ;  63  ;  72  ;  75  ; 
read  47. 


XVlll  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  12. 

[Based  on  the  third  paragraph  of  Exercise  2.] 

I.  We  know  Alfieri.  —  2.  They  amuse  themselves.  —  3.  Let 
them  tie  ^  themselves  to  the  arm-chair.  —  4.  They  will  know  the 
best  writer  in  Italy.  —  5.  Feel  a  desire  to  make  great  efforts.  — 
6.  They  tied  ^  themselves  to  the  arm-chair.  —  7.  He  knew  ^  what 
efforts  it  would  cost  him.  —  8.  Changing  one's  way  of  living 
isn't  enough.  — 9.  It  wasn't  enough  '  for  you  to  go  on  studying. 
— 10.  When  he  studies,  he  doesn't  feel  a  desire  to  amuse  him- 
self.*—  II.  By  *  studying  you  will  come  to  be  one  of  the  glories 
of  our  country.  — 12.  If  he  tied  ^  himself  to  the  arm-chair,  he 
would  feel  a  desire  to  study.  —  13.  As  he  no  longer  needs  to 
resort  to  this  means,  let  him  amuse  ^  himself.  —  14.  As  he  didn't 
amuse  ^  himself,  he  felt  ^  a  desire  to  go  out  of  doors.  —  15.  If 
you  knew  ^  Alfieri,  you  would  feel  a  desire  to  change  your  mode 
of  life.  — 16.  If  he  felt*  strong-minded  enough  to  study,  he 
would  become  the  greatest  writer  in  Italy. —  17.  Change  your 
way  of  living,  and  you  will  feel  a  desire  to  become  a  great  poet. 
—  18.  It  isn't  true  that  he  knows  ^  what  efforts  it  will  cost  him.  — 
19.  If  we  had  *  not  felt  a  desire  to  go  out  of  doors,  we  should 
not  know  such  a  great  poet.  —  20.  By  ^  amusing  himself,*  he  will 
come,  little  by  little,  to  need  to  make  great  efforts. 

1  Pres.  subj,  2  Pret.  3  imp.  ind.  *  Add  si  to  the  end  of  the  verb. 
5  Omit.        ^  Imp.  subj. 


LESSON  13. 


Review  Lesson  i. 


EXERCISE  13. 
Pronounce  Exercise  2.     Inflect  the  future  of  ammirare,  the 
conditional  of  studiare,  the  present  indicative  of  viaggiare,  the 
preterite  of  vergognare,  the  imperfect  indicative  of  sperare,  the  im- 
perfect subjunctive  of  giovare,  the  imperative  of  mutare,  the  pre- 


tESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XIX 

sent  subjunctive  of  determinare  {determini^  etc.),  the  future  of 
abbandonare^  the  conditional  of  lasciare^  the  present  indicative 
of  legare^  the  preterite  oi proseguire. 

LESSON  14. 

Conjunctive  personal  pronouns  :  46  ;  47  ;  48  (study  this 
paragraph  with  the  greatest  care),  with  footnotes  ;  48,  ^,  b, 
c\  49;  50;  86. 

EXERCISE  14- 

[The  words  are  to  be  found  in  the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 
Grammar^ 

I.  He  will  finish  it.  —  2.  I  speak  to  myself. — 3.  You  believe 
one  another.  — 4.  The  boys  have  the  same  clubs  that  belong^  to 
us.  —  5.  Speak  of  it  to  them. — 6.  We  speak  of  them  to  him.  — 
7.  Your  poor  father  had  a  beautiful  carriage  :  he  sent'^  it  to  me. 
—  8.  You  have  a  large  plant  :  give  it  to  me.  —  9.  The  Italian 
had  some  birds  :  he  sent^  them  to  you.  —  10.  I  speak  to  him  : 
he  believes  me.  —  11.  I  begin  to  ^  speak  to  them.  —  12.  You  have 
some  parrots  :  give  them  to  him.  —  13.  He  had  a  bird  :  he  sent  ^ 
it  to  them. —  14.  I  have  sent^  it  to  her. —  15.  You  have  some 
little  birds  :  give  me  some. 

1  Appartengono.  2  Use  mandare.  ^  A. 

LESSON  15. 

Irregular  verbs  ;  andare  :  64  ;  65  ;  66  ;  66,  b\  67  ;  93  ; 

92,  a,  b,  c,  d,f{^.  S7)  ;  92,  i  ;   78,  d. 

EXERCISE  15. 

Inflect  the  present  indicative  of  condurre  {conducéndo,  conduco^, 
the  present  subjunctive  of  dire  {dicendo,  died),  the  imperfect  indi- 
cative of  fare  {facendo),  the  imperfect  subjunctive  of   muòvere 


XX  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

{movendo)^  the  preterite  of  piacére  {piacqui)^  the  imperative  of 
scuòtere  iscotèndo),  the  future  oifdre,  the  conditional  of  trarre. 

LESSON  16. 

Review  Lesson  15. 

EXERCISE  16. 

[Based  on  the  third  paragraph  of  Exercise  2.] 

I.  Keep  on  studying.  —  2.  We  resorted^  to  this  means.  —  3. 
You  went  ^  out  of  doors.  —  4.  They  were  beginning  ^  to  study.  — 
5.  Go  and  have  yourself  ^  tied  to  the  arm-chair.  —  6.  Let  them 
go  and  amuse  themselves.  —  7.  You  no  longer  resort  to  this 
means.  —  8.  Let  us  go  and  amuse  ourselves.*  —  9.  We  knew^ 
what  efforts  would  be  necessary,  —  10.  We  went^  and  tied  our- 
selves* to  the  arm-chairs.  — 11.  When  I  go  to  study,  I  do  not 
need  to  resort  to  these  means.  —  12.  Alfieri  went^  and  had  him- 
self tied  to  the  arm-chair 13.  By^  going  to  study,  we  shall 

come  to  be  great  poets.  —  14.  When  I  felt  ^  a  desire  to  go  out 
of  doors,  I  used  to  go^  and  study.  —  15.  If  our  will  got ^  the 
upper  hand,  we  should  go  and  study. —  16.  If  we  went®  and 
studied,  we  should  not  need  to  change  our  mode  of  life.  —  17. 
When  your  will  gets  '  the  upper  hand,  you  will  go  and  study.  — 
18.  If  Alfieri  had  ^  gone  to  amuse  himself,  Italy  would  not  now 
have  so  great  a  poet.  — 19.  When  they  go  and  study,  they  no 
longer  need  to  have  themselves  tied  to  their  arm-chairs.  —  20. 
If  they  kept  ®  their  promise,  they  would  not  need  to  have  them- 
selves tied  to  the  arm-chair. 

1  Imp.  ind.  2  pret.  3  Vi.  *  Ci.  ^  Omit.  «  Imp.  subj.  '  Future. 
8  Imp.  subj.  of  èssere. 

LESSON  17. 

Disjunctive  personal  pronouns  :  51  ;  61,  3  ;  52  ;  73  ;  74; 
revievi^  Lesson  14. 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XXI 

EXERCISE  17. 

[The  words  are  to  be  found  in  the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 
Grammar.^ 

I.  He  spoke  of  it  to  us,  to  you,  and  to  them.  —  2.  They  be- 
lieve us.  —  3.  They  speak  of  themselves,  and  we  speak  of  our- 
selves.—  4.  She  has  finished  it.  —  5.  Who  will  speak  with  me  ? 

—  6.  You  are  very  good,  Mr.  B. —  7.  I  speak  to  you,  little  boy, 
and  to  him.  —  8.  He  is  the  boy  of  whom  I  spoke.  —  9.  Madam,i 
you  have  been  ^  very  unfortunate.  —  jo.  Little  boys,  you  will  be 
surprised.  —  11.  I  begin,  Mr.  B.,  to  believe  your  words. — 12. 
They  have  spoken  of  it  to  us  and  to  you.  —  13.  Do  not  think  of  ® 
them  :  think  of  *  her.  —  14.  Will  you  speak  of  it  to  him  or  to  me  ? 
— 15.  Mr.  B.  and  Mr.  D.,  you  are  unfortunate:  the  great  trees 
near  your  villa  belong  *  to  two  merchants,  and  not  to  you. 

1  Signóra.  ^  Fern.  ^  A.  *  Appartengono. 

LESSON  18. 

The  whole  chapter  on  Personal  Pronouns  (pp.  36-44), 
except  the  Exercises  at  the  end. 

EXERCISE  18. 

[Based  on  the  second  paragraph  of  Exercise  2.     In  all  sentences  in  which 
the  second  person  is  used,  translate  it  in  three  ways.] 

I.  Open  your  eyes,  and  you  will  be  thoroughly  ashamed  of 
yourselves.  —  2.  Do  not  open  them  ;  if  ^  you  opened  ^  them,  you 
would  be  ashamed.  —  3.  They  have  left  us  ;  do  not  abandon  us. 

—  4.  I  have  determined  to  accustom  myself  to  live  in  such  a 
way.  —  5.  By  ^  accustoming  yourself  to  study,  you  will  become 
an  entirely  different  man.  —  6.  I  hope  so  *  ;  I  am  ashamed  to  ^ 
live  in  such  a  way.  —  7.  They  had  accustomed  themselves  to 
leave  everything.  —  8.  Are  you  ashamed  to  give  up  your  habits  ? 

—  9.  He  says  so*  to  me  and  to  you  ;  he  has  determined  to  give 


XXli  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

them  up.  —  IO.  Does  he  say  so  *  to  you  ?  —  ii.  He  will  leave  it 
to  us. —  12.  She  might  leave  them  to  me. —  13.  He  wishes  to  ^ 
keep  them. —  14.  It  will  not  be  at  all  an  easy  matter  for®  you. 
—  15.  I  should  be  ashamed  of  it. 

1  Se.         2  Imp.  subj.  3  Omit.  ^  »  it.'  5  /?/.          6  p^r. 

LESSON  19. 

Irregular  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  :  92,  i,  2,  3,  4  ; 
read  79,  b  (including  i,  2,  3,  pp.  77  and  yd>). 

EXERCISE  19. 

[Based  on  Exercise  2.] 
I.  Let  us  give  them  the  offices.  —  2.  We  have  made  good 
resolutions.  —  3.  They  had  not  given  the  office  to  Alfieri.  —  4.  I 
don't  go  and  study  :  I  am  ^  talking.  —  5.  We  shall  be  ^  admiring 
Alfieri's  tragedies.  —  6.  If  I  made  ^  good  resolutions,  I  should  go 
and  study.  —  7.  I  don't  think  that  the  difficulty  lies  ^  in  making 
good  resolutions.  —  8.  If  he  were  ^  always  *  talking,  he  would  not 
do  anything.^  —  9.  Do  everything,  but  don't  go  and  live  in  such 
a  way. —  10.  We  do  not  believe  that  rank  gives®  them  a  right 
to  everything.  — 11.  By®  giving  them  everything,  he  would  be 
able  to  change  his  mode  of  life.  — 12.  You  used  to  go'  and 
study,  and  that  gave''  you  ^  a  right  to  the  greatest  honors.  —  13. 
If  you  went  ^  and  amused  yourself,^  they  would  not  give  you* 
the  office.  — 14.  They  used  to  make'  good  resolutions,  but  the 
difficulty  was'  in  keeping  them. —  15.  If  we  gave  ^  them  the 
office,  the  difficulty  would  be  in  making  them  study. —  16.  By® 
resolving  to  abandon  the  customs  of  aristocratic  youth,  he  would 
do  himself^  honor.  —  17.  When  you  make  '^^  a  good  ^^  resolution, 
you  will  go  and  study  ;  and  then  they  will  give  you  ^  everything. 
— 18.  Let  them  resolve  to  study,  and  let  them  go  to  the  Acad- 
emy of  Turin.  — 19.  Their  rank  gives  them  a  right  to  offices,  even 
if  they  do  not  resolve  to  change  their  way  of  living.  —  20.  He 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XXlll 

did  not  resolve  ^^  to  study,  but  went  ^'^  and  amused  himself  ;  and 
therefore  they  did  not  give  ^^  him  offices  nor  honors. 

1  Vses^dre.     ^  Imp.  subj.     ^  Pres.  subj.     ^  Sempre.     ^  AYdla.     ^  Omit. 
7  Imp.  ind.     8   Vi.     9  Si.     i*^  Future.     "  Buon  (29,  c).     12  Pret. 

LESSON  20. 

The  whole  chapter  on  Articles  (pp.  7-10),  except  the 
Exercises  at  the  end. 

EXERCISE  20. 
[Based  on  the  third  paragraph  of  Exercise  2.] 

I.  I  am  a  poet.  —  2.  Alfieri,  a  writer  who  began  to  study  at 
twenty-seven,  became  a  great  poet.  —  3.  Habits  bind  us.  —  4. 
Writers  have  to  resort  to  this  means.  —  5.  The  mind  makes 
an  effort.  —  6.  Great  efforts  are  hard.  —  7.  He  goes  to  amuse 
himself  with  the  poets.  —  8.  Knowing  the  habits  of  writers,  I 
had  him  tied  to  his  arm-chair. — 9.  Mr.  Alfieri  studies  in  my 
arm-chair. —  10.  Mr.  Alfieri,  you  will  go  to  Italy. 

LESSON  21. 

Irregular  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  :  92,  5-14  ;  67 
(study  the  examples  v^rith  particular  care)  ;  54,  a.  Note 
XhdX  piacére  is  intransitive  :  '  it  pleases  him  '  =^  gli  piace. 

EXERCISE  21. 

[Based  on  Exercise  i.] 
I.  He  does  not  know  when  string  beans  come  forth.  —  2. 
The  snow  fell  in  the  winter. — 3.  The  fig-trees  ought  to  have 
given  us  their  sweet  fruit.  —  4.  They  are  sitting  in  the  gardens. 
—  5.  You  will  see  them  in  the  spring.  —  6.  The  leaves  would  be 
lying  in  the  fields.  —  7.  Do  you  like  apricots  ^  ?  —  8.  Be  silent  ! 
I  do  not  like  fruit.  —  9.  Birds  are  wont  to  sing  in  the  spring.  — 
10.  I  ought  to  begin. 

1  '  Do  apricots  please  you .''  ' 


XXIV  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

LESSON  22. 

Review  Lesson  21. 


EXERCISE  22. 

[The  words  are  to  be  found  in  the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 
Grammar.^ 

I.  We  have  had^  to  keep  still  :  we  do  not  know  his  name. — 
2.  It  fell  ^  and  lay  ^  three  days  on  the  ground.  —  3.  He  was 
sitting^  in  the  room  where  his  brother  lay.^ —  4.  When  I  see* 
them,  I  shall  have  ^  to  keep  still,  because  I  do  not  know  their 
names.  —  5.  He  saw^  me,  but  I  didn't  suit^  him. — 6.  Do 
you  know  where  he  is  sitting  Ì  —  7.  They  are  lying  under  the 
table  :  don't  you  see  them  ?  —  8.  If  I  saw  ^  him,  I  should  have  ^ 
to  speak  to  him.  —  9.  They  will  not  know  where  we  have  seen 
them.  — 10.  See  her:  she  doesn't  know  that  we  have  ^  come 
back.  —  II.  Has  she  seen  these  plants?  Do  they  suit  her?  — 
12.  He  doesn't  believe  that  I  know'  his  name.  —  13.  Let  us  see 
where  they  are  going.  —  14.  It  lies  there,  where  it  has  *  fallen.  — 
15.  When  I  saw^  that  they  had  ^  fallen,  I  was  silent.^ —  16.  You 
saw  ^  my  coat:  how  ^  did  it  suit^  you? — 17.  If  we  had  ^  seen 
them  fall,  we  should  know  where  they  are.  —  18.  He  didn't  be- 
lieve ^  that  they  were  lying  ^  on  the  table.  —  19.  They  don't  be- 
lieve that  you  see  •  them.  —  20.  If  they  keep  still,  we  shall  not 
know  where  they  have  been. 

1  Use  dovére.         2  prgt.  3  j^np,  ind.  4  Future.  ^  Imp.  subj. 

^  Use  essere.        '  Pres.  subj.        ^  Cóme. 


LESSON  23. 

Irregular  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation:  92,  15-23; 
67;  45,  c.     Dolere  takes  an  indirect  object. 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XXV 


EXERCISE  23. 


[The  words  are  to  be  found  in  the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 
Grammar  J\ 

I.  My  eyes  pain  me  ;  I  don't  want  to  stay.  —  2.  We  shall  not 
be  able  to  persuade  him  ;  he  doesn't  want  to  keep  still.  —  3.  If 
we  were  not  able  ^  to  stay,  it  would  grieve  him  very  much.^  —  4. 
They  were  in  the  habit  ^  of  staying  ^  five  days.  —  5.  If  he  were 
holding  ^  it,  he  would  let  ^  it  fall.  —  6.  They  seem  large,  but 
they  cannot  be  good.  —  7.  He  wanted^  to  go,  but  he  could  ^ 
not:  I  held^  him.  —  8.  You  will  not  persuade  me  :  I  shall  not 
be  willing  to  do  it.  —  9.  We  saw  ^  them  :  they  are  not  worth  any- 
thing.' —  10.  If  he  doesn't  want  to  stay,  I'll  hold  him.  —  11.  He 
remained^  three  days,  because  his  head  pained^  him. —  12.  It 
grieved®  me,  but  I  had  ^  to  do  it.  —  13.  I  don't  believe  that  it 
hurts  ^  him  very  much.^ —  14.  If  you  wish  it,  they  will  stay  with 
you.  —  IS-  I  have  seen  them  this  year  ;  they  seemed  ^  very  little 
to  me  :  I  should  have  thought  that  they  were  not  worth  ^  any- 
thing.'^ —  16.  You  don't  believe  that  he  is  willing  ^  to  stay.  —  17. 
If  you  wanted  ^  to  stay,  you  wouldn't  be  able  to  sit  down.  —  18. 
If  you  don't  believe  that  I  can  ^  keep  still,  don't  remain  here.  — 
19.  He  cannot  stay:  he  has  to  go  and  study.  —  20.  Let  them 
remain  there,  if  they  don't  want  to  come  back. 

1  Imp.  subj.  2  Mólto.  3  Imp.  ind.  *  '  Of  staying  '  =  '  (to)  stay.' 
5  Lasciare.        ^  Pret.         "^  Ménte.        ^  Pres.  subj. 


LESSON  24. 

Auxiliary  verbs  :  53,  a,  b  \  54  ;  54,  a,b,c,d,e\  55  ;  57  ; 
read  the  synopses  in  56.  Note  that  andare  is  conjugated 
with  essere. 


XXVI  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  24. 

[The  words  are  to  be  found  in  the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 
Graf?i?nar.^ 

I.  I  shall  have  finished  the  poem.-^  —  2.  They  had  built  ^  a 
city.  —  3.  We  should  have  spoken.^  —  4.  He  will  have  gone. — 
5.  You  would  have  come.'*  —  6.  The  poor  boys  who  have  come  * 
to  the  city  have  spoken  of  it  to  their  mothers.  —  7.  We  have 
finished  our  questions,  but  they  have  been  very  short.  — 8.  The 
villas  which  the  boy's  father  has  built  ^  are  the  most  beautiful 
in  the  world.  —  9.  The  great  ^  duke  has  gone  to  speak  to  the 
unhappy  sailors  who  have  come  ^  to  our  city.  —  10.  If  I  had^ 
come,*  they  would  have  sent  me  to  the  city.  —  11.  I  do  not  be- 
lieve that  he  has  '  come.* — 12.  We  should  not  have  believed 
that  you  had  ^  spoken  of  it  to  him.  —  13.  If  I  had  *  spoken  of  it, 
he  would  have  sent  it  to  me.  —  14.  If  they  had^  sent  it  to  her, 
she  would  have  come  *  to  speak  of  it  to  me. —  15.  We  believed 
that  the  largest  prisons  in  the  city  had  ^  been  built  ^  by  an  un- 
happy king,  whose  father  was  an  Italian  duke. 

1  See  Ex.  5,  note  2.  2  Use  cost?'uire.  ^  Two  translations.  *  Venire,  p.  p. 
veneto,  aux.  èssere.    ^  See  29,  c.     ^  Imp.  subj.     '^  Pres.  subj. 

LESSON  25. 

Regular   verbs  :  58  ;  58,  ^  ;  59  ;  59,  a\  60  ;  61  ;  62  ; 

63  ;  read  77,  d^f^  gy  h.     Sentire  means  "  to  feel." 

EXERCISE  25. 

[The  words  are  to  be  found  in  the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 
Grammar. \ 

I.  The  year  ends  with  December. — 2.  We  speak  of  these 
things,  but  you  don't  believe  us.  —  3.  I  don't  believe  that  the 
year  ends  ^  with  December.  —  4.  Finish  all  the  things  that  you 
have  begun.  —  5.  He  didn't  believe  ^  that  we  felt  ^  the  heat.  —  6. 
You  related  *  many  things,  but  I  didn't  believe  *  them  all.  — 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XXVU 

7.  They  feel  the  heat,  but  they  don't  observe  the  smoke.  — 8.  If 
he  hastened,^  they  would  flee.  —  9.  The  water  boils,  but  we  don't 
feel  the  heat.  —  10.  What  prevents  us  from  ^  observing  these 
objects? —  II.  Let  us  hasten  :  they  will  eat^  everything.  —  12. 
If  I  repeated  ^  these  things,  you  would  learn  them. —  13.  Let 
them  believe  everything  :  they  will  not  prevent  me  from  ^  think- 
ing. —  14.  You  haven't  learned  those  things  :  I  repeat  them  to 
you.  —  15.  You  don't  believe  that  he  repeats  ^  everything.  —  16. 
Observe  them  :  they  are  hastening  ;  where  are  they  fleeing  ?  — 
17.  I  didn't  finish*  it:  they  prevented^  me  from  ^  hastening. 
—  18.  If  he  thought^  that  you  were  not  observing^  him,  he 
would  eat  ^  everything. —  19.  Learn  everything,  and  repeat  it  to 
me  in'  two  days.  —  20.  We  shall  study  three  years  ;  by  ^  study- 
ing we  shall  learn  everything. 

1  Pres.  subj.  2  j^np.  ind.  ^  Imp.  subj.  *  Pret.  ^  Z>/,  with  infin. 
**  Mangiare,    ^  Fra.     ^  Omit. 

LESSON   26. 

Irregular  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  :  92,  24-73 
(omitting  forms  enclosed  in  parentheses  and  all  verbs 
marked  poetical  or  rare)  ;  69  ;   70  ;  91,  a. 

EXERCISE  26. 

[Based  on  the  first  paragraph  of  Exercise  2.     The  forms  of  irregular  verbs 
not  yet  learned  may  be  found  in  the  List,  pp.  loi  ff.] 

If  I  should  speak  ^  to  you  of  Victor,  you  would  admire  his 
strong,  firm  will.  He  was  born  ^  in  1749,  of  a  noble  family  of 
Piedmont  ;  he  is  a  count.  Nowadays  ^  we  don't  believe  that 
being  noble  is  enough*  to  make  us  worth  something  ;  therefore 
most  young  men  study,  and  are  worth  something,  because  they 
know  that,  if  they  are  ignorant,  their  rank  alone  will  not  give 
them  a  right  to  offices  and  honors.  But  Victor,  as  a  lad,  studied 
carelessly;  and,  although  he  has*  a  fine  mind,  he  is  ignorant, 
and  doesn't  know  anything  at  all.   We  sent  him  to  the  Academy 


XXVlll  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

of  Turin.  But  he  didn't  know  tliat  talent  is  of  no  use  without 
study  ;  and  a  few  years  later  he  came  out  without  having  studied 
nor  even  travelled,  and  without  knowing  that  study  is  worth 
something.  He  didn't  admire  the  Academy,  and  he  didn't 
speak  of  it  ;  he  couldn't  study,  and  he  didn't  know  anything  at 
all,  because  he  thought  it  was  enough^  to  have  a  fine  mind.  He 
was  noble,  but  they  didn't  give^  him  offices  nor  honors,  because 
he  was  ignorant. 

1  Imp.  subj.        2  pret.        s  Oggidì.        *  Pres.  subj.        ^  j^np^  gubj. 

LESSON   27. 

Irregular  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  :  92,  75-124 
(omitting  forms  enclosed  in  parentheses  and  all  verbs 
marked  poetical  or  rare)  ;  87  ;  ^S\  89. 

EXERCISE  27. 

[Based  on  the  second  paragraph  of  Exercise  2.   The  forms  of  irregular  verbs 
not  yet  learned  may  be  found  in  the  List.   Vivere  is  conjugated  with  avére?^ 

He  arrived  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  and  then,  one  fine 
day,  he  opened  his  eyes.  Now  1  he  is  thoroughly  ashamed  of 
himself,  and  hopes  that  by  changing  his  mode  of  life  he  will  be 
able  to  become  an  entirely  different  man  from  what  he  has 
been.  He  has  perceived  his  ignorance,  and  has  resolved  to 
give  up  the  habits  that  he  has  formed  during  a  long  course  of 
years  ;  he  has  determined  to  accustom  himself  to  study.  He 
says  to  himself  :  "  It  will  not  cost  much  to  make  good  resolu- 
tions ;  the  difficulty  will  be  in  keeping  them.  But  I  shall  keep 
them  —  I  shall  accustom  myself  to  living  in  an  entirely  different 
way  from  formerly  —  I  shall  leave  everything  in  order  to  study. 
I  resolve  to  change  my  mode  of  life.  It  will  be  no  small  matter, 
because  I  have  lived  hitherto^  in  an  entirely  different  way  ;  and 
when  we  live  in  such  a  way,  we  form  '  certain  customs  —  but  I 
shall  not  notice  it  :  by  studying  and  keeping  my  good  resolu- 
tions I  shall  accustom  myself  to  such  a  life.     I  will  do  it.     I 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  Xxix 

should  like  to  be  a  credit  to  Italy.     I  perceive  my  ignorance, 
and  I  am  ashamed  of  myself." 

1  Adèsso.        2  Finóra.        3  See  p.  97,  no.  132. 

LESSON  28. 

Irregular  verbs  of  the   third  conjugation:  92,   126-148 
(omitting  forms  enclosed  in  parentheses). 

EXERCISE  28. 

[Based  on  the  third  paragraph  of  Exercise  2.] 
Victor  knew  that  he  would  have  to  make  great  efforts,  that  it 
wasn't  enough  to  feel  a  desire  to  study,  and  that  he  would  have 
need  of  great  strength  of  mind  ;  but  he  said  ^  to  himself  that 
little  by  little  his  will  would  get  the  upper  hand,  and  that  by 
continuing  to  study  he  would  come  to  be  a  good  writer.  He 
understood  and  perceived  what  efforts  it  would  cost  him  ;  but  he 
resolved  to  change  his  mode  of  life,  and  he  kept  his  promise.  It 
is  true  that  it  cost  him  great  efforts.  He  no  longer  went  ^  out  of 
doors.  When  he  felt  a  desire  to  amuse  himself  instead  of  study- 
ing, he  had  to  have  himself  tied  to  his  arm-chair.  But  little  by 
little  he  became  a  great  poet,  and  came  to  have  no  more  need  of 
having  himself  tied.  Then  ^  he  knew  that  he  had  got  the  upper 
hand,  and  said  *  to  himself  :  ''  I  shall  not  resort  to  this  means 
any  longer  :  I  have  no  more  need  of  it.  I  shall  begin  to  study,  I 
shall  resolve  to  go  on,  and  I  shall  keep  my  promise.  I  can  and 
will  do  it.  I  have  changed  my  way  of  living.  It  has  been  hard 
—  I  know  what  efforts  it  has  cost  me  ;  but  now^  I  shall  not  tie 
myself  any  more.  I  make  promises  and  keep  them  :  my  will 
has  got  the  upper  hand." 

1  Diceva.  2  Usciva.  3  Allóra.  4  /p/jj.^,  5  ó^^. 

LESSON  29. 
Personal  pronouns:     46  ;  47  ;  47,  ^;  48  ;  48,  a,  b,  c, 
d\  49  ;  50  ;  51  ;  51,  a,b\  52  ;  55. 


XXX  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  29. 

[Based  on  Exercise  i.  Translate  the  second  person  in  three  ways.] 
I.  When  will  you  begin  to  sing  to  us  ?  —  2.  Have  you  burned 
yourself  ?  —  3.  Seeing  you  in  the  garden,  I  called  you.  —  4.  Fin- 
ish it  in  the  summer.  —  5.  Having  finished  them,  you  will  give 
them  to  us.  —  6.  Do  not  give  it  to  them.  —  7.  I  should  have  given 
them  to  you.  —  8.  Give  me  your  cherries.  —  9.  Have  you  any  of 
these  pears  .'* —  10.  Give  her  some.  —  11.  What  is  your  name  ^  ? 

—  12.  I  could  have  given  it  to  you.  —  13.  Is  it  necessary  to  give 
it  tome  ? — 14.  I  should  make  him  begin  it.  — 15.  Give  it  to  me. 

—  16.  Sing  it  to  them. —  17.  Do  not  burn  yourself. — 18,  lam 
calling:  is  it  you  .''  —  19.  I  gave  it  to  you  and  to  him.  —  20. 
Have  you  lost  your  apples  ?  —  21.  I  ought  to  have  called  you.  — 
22.  Let  her  see  it.  —  23.  You  can  see  me,  but  I  cannot  see  you. 

—  24.  He  sees  the  birds,  but  they  do  not  see  him.  —  25.  Let  me 
see  some. 

1  '  How  (cóme)  do  you  call  yourself  .-*  ' 

LESSON  30. 

Irregular  verbs  of  the  fourth  conjugation  :  92,  149-161  ; 
82  ;  84.     Morire  is  conjugated  v^ith  essere. 

EXERCISE  30. 

[The  words  are  to  be  found  in  the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 

Grammar^ 

I.  See  Naples^  and  then  die.  —  2.  They  opened  the  window. 

—  3.  Let  them  cover  themselves  and  remain  covered.  —  4.  We 
don't  open  the  door  ;  the  wind  has  opened  it.  —  5.  If  I  sew  all  ^ 
day,  I  shall  die.  —  6.  They  have  built  a  great  village.  —  7.  If 
they  die,  we  shall  bury  them  in  the  grove.  —  8.  I  don't  believe 
that  you  are  dying.' —  9.  What  are  they  filling  ?  They  offer  me 
water.  —  10.  The  boy  has  died,  and  his  parents  are  burying  him. 
—  II.  He  will  fill  it,  and  then  he  will  offer  it  to  you.  —  12.  Our 

friends,  who  died  last  year,  are  buried  in  the  wood.  — 13.  Do 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XXXI 

you  believe  that  he  is  building^  a  villa  ? —  14.  If  I  suffered*  as 
my  parents  have  suffered,  I  should  die. —  15.  While  they  were 
building^  the  city,  many  men  died.  —  16.  He  suffered^  always, 
because  he  didn't  digest  ^  the  food.  —  17.  Offer  him  bread  :  per- 
haps he  will  digest  it.  —  18.  We  suffer  —  we  are  too  unfortunate  : 
let  us  die. —  19.  I  eat**  this  bread  because  you  have  offered  it 
to  me  ;  but  I  don't  digest  it.  —  20.  If  he  dies,  he  will  not  be 
buried,  but  the  birds  will  cover  him  with  '  leaves. 

1  Nàpoli.         2  <  All  the.'         ^  pj-gg  gubj.        *  Imp.  subj.        ^  Imp.  ind. 
*  Mangiare.        '  Di. 

LESSON  31. 
Irregular  verbs  of  the  fourth  conjugation  :  92,  162-168. 

EXERCISE  31. 

[The  words  are  to  be  found  in   the  English-Italian  vocabulary  of  the 
Grammar^ 

I.  You  tell  it  to  me,  but  I  don't  hear  you.  —  2.  I  go  out  every 
day.  — 3.  Hear  me  :  I  shall  tell  you  everything.  —  4.  We  went 
up,  but  our  friends  didn't  come.  —  5.  He  tells  me  that  they 
have  ^  come.  — 6.  He  opens  the  door,  but  he  doesn't  go  out. — 
7.  I  tell  you  that  he  will  come.  —  8.  Thus  speaking,  I  open  the 
door  and  go  out.  — 9.  They  told  him  that  you  would  come. — 

10.  He  built  himself  a  villa  in  the  grove,  and  then  he  died. — 

11.  We  told  them  that  he  had  built  a  villa.  —  12.  We  come, 
we  go  up,  and  we  come  out,  but  we  don't  disappear.  —  13.  We 
have  told  him  that  you  are  coming. —  14.  I  come  here  to  see 
everything:  they  are  building  me  a  villa. —  15.  If  I  told '^  you 
everything,  you  would  die. —  16.  You^  have  opened  the  door; 
but  if  you^  go  out,  you  *  die.  —  17.  They  come  and  disappear. 
Where  do  they  go  .'*  Tell  me,  do  they  all  die  ì  —  18.  I  don't 
believe  that  they  are  going  up.*  Let  them  come,  and  they  shall 
hear  me.  I  shall  say  to  them  :  "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered.*  " 
—  19.  He  says  that  he  will  come;  he  comes;  he  disappears; 


XXXll  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

and  we  do  not  know  where  he  has  ^  gone.  —  20.  He  came  —  I 
heard  him  open  the  door  ;  he  went  up,  and  then  he  disappeared. 
I  came  out,  but  I  did  not  see  him  :  he  had  ^  died.  We  came 
here  to  find  him,  and  we  buried  him  in  the  wood. 

1  Use  hsere.  2  Imp.  subj.  ^  Second  pers.  sing.  *  Pres.  subj.  ^  Vincere^ 
irreg.  verb. 

LESSON  32. 

The  whole  chapter  on  Auxiliary  Verbs  (pp.  47-54),  except 
Exercise  13  at  the  end.     See  also  42. 

EXERCISE  32. 
Translate  Exercise  14  on  p.  55. 

LESSON  33. 

Regular  verbs,  and  irregular  verbs  of  the  fourth  conjuga- 
tion :  58  ;  58,  tì!  ;  59  ;  59,  a,b\  60  ;  61  ;  62  ;  63  ;  63,  ^  ; 
92,  149-168. 

EXERCISE  33. 

Translate  Exercise  16  on  pp.  64,  65. 

LESSON  34. 

Irregular  verbs  of  the  first  and  second  conjugations:  66, 
a,byC\  68,  a,  b\  92,  a,  b,  c,  d\  92,  1-23. 

EXERCISE  34. 
Inflect  :   the  preterite  of  fare,  sapere^  dovére,  vedére,  piacére, 
dolere,  rimanére,  tenére,  valére,  volére,  parére,  potére,  persuadére  ; 
the  imperfect  indicative  and  subjunctive  of  fare,  giacere,  volére  ; 
the  imperative  of  vedére^  rimanére,  tenére. 

LESSON  35. 

Irregular  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  :  92,  eyf,g\  92, 
24-148. 


LESSONS    AND    EXERCISES.  XXXlll 

EXERCISE  35. 
Translate  the  first  half  of  Exercise  i8  on  p.  73. 

LESSON  36. 

The  whole  chapter  on-  Moods  and  Tenses  (pp.  65-72). 

EXERCISE  36. 

Translate  the  second  half  of  Exercise  18  on  pp.  73,  74. 

LESSON  37. 

The  whole  chapter  on  Nouns  and  the  whole  chapter  on 
Adjectives  (pp.  11-22),  except  Exercise  6  at  the  end. 

EXERCISE  37. 

Translate  Exercises  2  (p.  11)  and  4  (p.  17). 

LESSON  38. 

The  whole  chapter  on  Demonstrative,  Interrogative,  Rela- 
tive, and  Possessive  Pronouns  (pp.  30-34)  ;  the  whole  chap- 
ter on  Indefinite  Pronouns  (pp.  84-87),  except  the  long  list 
on  p.  86  and  the  Exercise  at  the  end. 

EXERCISE  38. 

Translate  Exercises  6  (p.  23)  and  10  (p.  35). 

LESSON  39. 

The  whole  chapter  on  Personal  Pronouns  (pp.  36-44),  ex- 
cept Exercise  1 1  at  the  end. 

EXERCISE  39. 
Translate  Exercise  12  on  pp.  45,  46. 


XXXIV  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

LESSON  40. 

The  whole  chapter  on  Augmentatives,  Diminutives,  and 
Numerals  (pp.  23-28),  except  Exercise  7  at  the  end. 

EXERCISE  40. 
Translate  Exercise  8  on  p.  29. 

LESSON  41. 

The  whole  chapter  on  Conjunctions,  Prepositions,  and 
Adverbs  (pp.  74-82),  except  the  two  long  lists  and  Exercise 
19  at  the  end. 

EXERCISE  41. 
Translate  Exercise  20  on  p.  84. 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

1.  The  Italian  alphabet  has  the  same  letters  as  the 
English,  except  that  ky  Wy  Xy  and  y  do  not  occur  in 
modern  Italian. 

2.  The  Italians  distinguish  seven  vowels  :  ^,  close  ^, 
open  Cy  iy  close  Oy  open  Oy  u\  each  of  which  always  has 
the  same  sound,  no  matter  what  may  be  its  position  in 
the  word,  and  never  tends,  as  do  the  English  long  vowels, 
to  become  a  diphthong.  Italian  vowels  are  all  pronounced 
very  quickly  ;  hence  there  is  but  little  difference  in  quan- 
tity between  accented  and  unaccented  sounds.  English- 
speaking  students  must  carefully  avoid  drawling  the  ac- 
cented and  slighting  the  unaccented  syllables  ;  they  should 
try  to  give  to  every  Italian  vowel  about  the  length  of  i  in 
*' bitter." 

A  is  nearly  like  a  in  "father"  :  as  favUy  cannuy  cassa^ 
palla. 

E,  close,  is  nearly  like  a  in  "fate":  as  bevey  verey  stelle^ 
messe. 

E,  open,  may  be  formed  by  trying  to  pronounce  e  in 
**beir'  with  the  mouth  very  wide  open:  as  belluy  amenay 
feray  pensa. 


2  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

I  is  nearly  like  ee  in  "feet"  :  as  miri,  vini,  fissiy  spilli. 

O,  close,  is  nearly  like  o  in  "mope":  as  dopo,  dove, 
bollo,  sotto. 

O,  open,  is  nearly  like  aw  in  "saw"  pronounced  with 
the  mouth  wide  open  :  as  no,  odi,  poi,  donna. 

U  is  nearly  like  oo  in  "boot  "  :  as  una,  cura,  nulla,  ruppi. 

a.  The  letters  /  and  u  are  sometimes  used  to  represent  conso- 
nant sounds  (see  4)  ;  but  in  formulating  rules  they  are  always 
counted  as  vowels. 

3.  As  close  and  open  vowels  are  not  distinguished  in 
spelling,  some  rules  are  necessary  :  — 

(i)  Unaccented  e  and  0  are  always  close  :  as  marey 
"sea"  ;  amo,  "I  love." 

(2)  E  and  0  are  close  in  all  monosyllables  *  ending  in  a 
consonant  :  as  con,  "with  "  ;  non,  "not  "  ;  per,  "for." 

(3)  In  monosyllables  *  and  oxytones  f  ending  in  a  vowel, 
final  e  is  close,  final  o  is  open:  as  che,  "what";  me,  "me"; 
re,  "  king  "  ;  credè,  "  he  believed  "  ;  perchè,  "  why  "  ;  do,  "  I 
give";  Po,  "Po";  sarò,  "I  shall  be";  andò,  "he  went." 
Exceptions  :  final  e  is  open  in  ^  =  "is,"  re  —  "re,"  interjec- 
tions (as  aimè,  "alas";  che,  "nonsense"),  proper  names  (as 
Noè,  "Noah"),  and  foreign  words  (as  caffè,  "coffee")  ;  final 
o  is  close  in  lo  and  0. 

(4)  Accented  e  and  0  are  always  open  in  the  groups  ie 
and  uo  :  as  piede,  "foot";  fuoco,  "fire."  E  and  0  standing 
for  ie  and  uo  are  open  :  as  ven=.  viene,  "he  comes"  ;  cor- 
ettore, "heart." 

*  Not  including  shortened  forms  of  words  that  regularly  have  more  than 
one  syllable. 

t  Words  accented  on  the  last  syllable. 


PRONUNCIATION.  3 

(5)  In  words  that  have  always  formed  a  part  of  the 
spoken  language,  accented  e  is  nearly  always  close  when 
it  represents  Latin  è  or  i^  open  when  it  represents  Latin  è 
or  CB  ;  accented  0  is  nearly  always  close  when  it  represents 
Latin  0  or  /?,  open  when  it  represents  Latin  o  or  ati.  In 
book  words  accented  e  and  o  are  usually  open. 

In  all  cases  not  covered  by  the  first  three  rules,  the 
quality  of  e  and  0  will  be  marked  in  this  book,  an  acute 
accent  (^)  denoting  the  close,  a  circumflex  (^)  the  open 
sound  :  as  avére^  "  to  have  "  ;  meno,  **  less  "  ;  tiene,  "  he 
holds";  /tetOy  ** happy";  poeta,  "poet";  óra,  "hour"; 
mol/o,  "  much  "  ;  buòno,  "  good  "  ;  pòco,  "  little  "  ;  mòto^ 
"motion." 

4.   B,  f,  m,  p,  q,  v  are  pronounced  as  in  English. 

C  before  e  or  i  sounds  like  ch  in  "  chin  "  ;  elsewhere  it 
is  always  like  English  k  :  as  cima,  "  top  "  ;  càfne,  "  how  "  ; 
{ia/ce,  "sweet."  G  before  e  or  t  sounds  like  g-  in  "gem  "  ; 
elsewhere  it  is  always  like  £•  in  "go":  as  gatto,  "cat"; 
gente,  "people";  spingi,  "push." 

a.  A  r<r  or  a  gg  before  e  or  i  has  merely  the  sound  of  ch  in 
" chin "  or  g  in  "gem  "  prolonged  :  2l%  facce,  " faces  "  ;  légge,  " law." 

D,  1,  n,  t  are  pronounced  further  forward  in  the  mouth 
than  in  English  ;  the  tip  of  the  tongue  should  touch  the 
back  of  the  upper  front  teeth  :  as  alto,  "  high  "  ;  dato, 
"given";  luna,  "moon";  nudo,  "naked";  tuòno,  "thunder." 
H  is  always  silent  :  as  ahi,  "oh!"  ha,  "he  has." 
I,  unaccented,  before  a  vowel,  sounds  like  English  y\ 
as  ieri,  "yesterday";  paio,  "pair";  più,,  "more."  In 
the  groups  eia,  ciò,  ciu,  già,  gio,  giù,  an  unaccented  i 
serves  only  to  show  that  the  ^  or  ^  is  soft  :    as  faccia^ 


4  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

"  face  "  ;  guancia,  **  cheek  "  ;  ciòy  "  that  "  ;  giiiy  "  down  "  ; 
mangia,  "  eat  "  ;  raggio,  **  ray." 

J  is  merely  another  way  of  writing  i. 

N  before  a  ^  or  a  hard  <;  or  ^  has  the  sound  of  Eng. 
lish  ng  :  as  banca  {bang-ka),  **  bank  "  ;  dunque  {dung-kwe), 
"therefore";  lungo  {hmg-go),  "long." 

R  is  always  rolled,  the  point  of  the  tongue  vibrating 
against  the  teeth  :  as  caro,  *'  dear  "  ;  rósso,  '*  red  "  ;  per, 
"for."  When  r  is  double  or  followed  by  a  consonant, 
the  trill  is  prolonged  :  as  carro,  "  cart  "  ;  burro,  "  butter  "  ; 
marróne,  "chestnut";  came,  "meat";  pòrta,  "door." 

S  IS  generally  pronounced  nearly  like  English  s  in  "see," 
but  with  a  somewhat  sharper  sound  :  as  so,  "  I  know  "  ; 
spillo,  "  pin." 

Initial  s  before  a  sonant  {b,  d,  g,  I,  m,  n,  r,  v)  has  a 
sound  intermediate  between  s  and  English  z  :  as  sdruccio- 
lare, "to  slip";  slitta,  "sleigh." 

A  single  s  between  vowels  has,  in  most  words,  the  sound 
of  English  z:  as  caso,  "case";  causa,  "cause";  viso,  "face." 
But  in  the  following  cases  it  is  pronounced  like  s  in  "see," 
"  mason  "  :  — 

a.  In  annusare,  àsino,  casa,  Chiusi,  còsa,  così,  desiderio,  naso, 
par  asito,  péso,  Pisa,  pisello,  pòsa,  ripòso,  riso,  susina,  and  their 
derivatives,  and  in  some  uncommon  words. 

b.  After  the  prefixes  de-,  di-*  pre-,  pro-,  re-,  ri-,  tra-*  :  as  de- 
sistere, diségno,  presùmere,  proseguire,  reservare,  risolvere,  tra- 
sudare. 

e.  In  the  adjective  ending  -òso  and  the  adjective  and  substan- 
tive ending  -ése  :  as  noióso,  "  troublesome  "  ;  inglése,  "  English  "  ; 
mése,  "month."  But  in  cortése,  francése,  lucchése,  marchése,  paese, 
palése,  the  s  is  like  English  z. 

*  Not  to  be  confounded  with  dis-,  iras-  :  disonòre,  trasandare. 


PRONUNCIATION.  5 

d.  In  the  preterites  and  past  participles  of  chièdere,  chiùdere, 
nascóndere,  pórre,  ràdere,  ridere,  rimanére,  rispóndere,  ródere,  and 
ali  verbs  in  -endere  ;  and  in  their  compounds  and  derivatives  :  as 
chièsi,  socchiuso,  nascóse,  rispósero,  rasóio,  rimase,  corrispósi^ 
rósero,  accési,  réso,  scésa.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  derìdere^ 
verbs  in  -eludere,  and  derivatives  of  ródere. 

U,  unaccented,  before  a  vowel,  sounds  like  English  w  : 
as  òuono,  "good"  ;  guardare,  "to  look"  ;  può,  "he  can." 

z  and  zz  are  generally  pronounced  like  a  long  and  vig- 
orous is  :  as  alzare,  "  to  lift  "  ;  azióne,  "  action  "  ;  prezzo^ 
"price";  zio,  "uncle." 

In  the  following  cases,  however,  z  and  zz  sound  like  a 
prolonged  dz  :  — 

a.  In  azzurro,  dozzina,  mèzzo,  pranzo,  ribrézzo,  romanzo,  zèlo, 
and  many  less  common  words. 

b.  In  verbs  in  -izzare  (as  utilizzare,  "to  utilize")  ;  except  attiz- 
zare^  dirizzare,  guizzare,  rizzare,  stizzare,  and  their  compounds, 
and  a  few  uncommon  words. 

6.   The  following  combinations  are  to  be  noted  :  — 

Ch  (used  only  before  e  and  i)  is  always  like  English  k\ 
as  fichi  (plural  of  fico,  "fig").  Sch  is  like  sk  :  as  schérzo y 
"sport." 

Gh  (used  only  before  e  and  i)  is  always  like  'English  g  in 
"go"  :  as  aghi  (plural  of  ago,  "needle"). 

Gli  (written  gl  if  the  following  vowel  be  i)  is  nearly  lik:; 
English  Hi  in  "million":  as  figlio,  "son";  figli,  "sons." 
But  in  Anglia,  geroglifico,  glicerina,  negligere  and  its  deriv- 
atives, and  a  few  uncommon  words  borrowed  from  the 
Greek  or  Latin,  gl  is  like  English  gl, 

Gn  is  nearly  like  ni  in  "  onion  "  :  as  ógni,  "every." 

Qu  is  always  like  kw  :  as  quésto^  "this." 


6  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

Se  before  e  and  i  is  nearly  like  sh  in  "  ship  "  :  as  uscire^ 
"to  go  out."  Before  all  other  letters  it  is  pronounced  sk\ 
2(.s  scudluy  "school";  schérno,  "contempt." 

6.  Every  letter  in  Italian  is  distinctly  and  separately 
sounded  ;  the  only  exceptions  are  h,  silent  /  (see  4),  and 
the  combinations  mentioned  in  5.  Ex.  :  arte,  "art";  firma, 
"signature";  y?^;'/^,  "theft";  giórno,  "day";  verso,  "toward"; 
andai,  "I  went";  dura,  "breeze";  bugie,  "lies";  Europa, 
"  Europe  "  ;  miei,  "  my  "  ;  paura,  "  fear  "  ;  sentii,  "  I  felt  "  ; 
suoi,  "his." 

Where  a  double  consonant  is  written,  both  letters  must 
be  sounded,  the  first  at  the  end  of  the  preceding,  the 
second  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  syllable  :  as  anno, 
"year";  babbo,  "father";  fatto,  "done";  mésso,  "put"; 
quello,  "that."     For  rr,  zz,  and  soft  cc  and^^,  see  4. 

L,  m,  n,  and  r,  when  preceded  by  an  accented  vowel 
and  followed  by  another  consonant,  are  prolonged  :  as 
alto  {all-to),  "high";  sempre  {semm-pre),  "always";  tanto 
{tann-to),  "so  much";  parte  {parr-te),  "part." 

7.  The  accent  is  nearly  always  the  same  as  in  Latin. 
In  this  book  it  will  always  be  noted.  Of  the  signs  written 
here,  students  need  use  only  the  grave  (^),  which  is  placed 
on  the  last  syllable  of  oxytones  and  on  some  monosyllables  ; 
Italian  writers  do  not  agree  as  to  the  use  of  the  other  marks  ; 
some  use  the  acute,  and  not  the  grave,  on  final  e. 

8.  Italian  words  are  divided  in  such  a  way  that,  if  pos- 
sible, every  syllable  shall  begin  with  a  consonant  :  as  ta-vo- 
li-no,  ^^X.'àkAo,''  ',  frat-tdn-to,  "meanwhile";  al-l' uo-mo,  "to 
the  man";  nar-rd-re,  "to  relate"  ;  viez-zo,  "half";  cdc-cia, 
"hunt";  dg-gi,  "to-day." 


ARTICLES.  7 

In  the  groups  s  -j-  consonant,  consonant  +  r,  those  men- 
tioned in  5,  and  c/,  fl,  gl,  pi,  both  consonants  belong  to  the 
following  syllable.  I  =  y  and  u  =  w  go  with  the  following 
vowel  ;  dz,  du,  ez,  ezi,  oi  are  not  separated.  Ex.  :  al-V  dzi-ra, 
a-vrb,  bi-só-gno,  ca-stz-ghz,  del-V  dc-qua,  in-chio-strOy  miéiy 
mi-glió-rey  ri-fiét-te-rey  te-d-troy  tuoi. 


ARTICLES. 


9.  The  article  is  not  declined,  but  it  agrees  with  its 
substantive  in  gender  and  number 

THE   DEFINITE   ARTICLE. 

10.  Masculine  :  — 

a.  Sing,  ily  pi.  /,  before  a  word  beginning  with  any  consonant 
except  s  impure  *  and  z. 

b.  Sing,  loy  pi.  gliy  before  a  vowel  or  s  impure  or  z.f 

Before  a  vowel  lo  becomes  /'  ;  gli  becomes  gV  before  i. 

Ex.  :   II pddre,  the  father;  i padri,  the  fathers. 
Lo  stésso  padre,  the  same  father. 
Lo  sciame,  the  swarm  ;  gli  sciami,  the  swarms. 
Lo  zio,  the  uncle  ;  gli  zii,  the  uncles. 
D  uòmo,  the  man  ;  gV  insètti,  the  insects. 

11.  Feminine:  — 
Sing,  lay  pi.  le. 

Before  a  vowel  la  becomes  /';   le  becomes  /'  before  e. 
Ex.  :   La  mddre,  the  mother  ;  le  madri,  the  mothers. 

Z'  óra,  the  hour  ;  le  óre,  the  hours  ;  /'  èrbe,  the  herbs. 


*  That  is,  s  followed  by  another  consonant. 

t  Li  is  sometimes  used  for  gli.     Some  writers  use  il,  i  before  z  and  before 
see-  or  sci-.     In  poetry  lo  is  often  used  for  //. 


8 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


12.  When  the  definite  article  is  preceded  by  one  of  the 
prepositions  di,  da,  a,  iuy  con,  su,  per,  the  article  and  prepo- 
sition are  generally  contracted  into  one  word,  as  shown  in 
the  following  table  {con,  per  are  often  uncontracted)  :  — 


IL 

^ 

LO 

GLI 

LA 

LE 

l' 

Di,  of 

del 

dèi  or  de' 

dèlio 

degli 

della 

dèlie 

dell' 

Da,  by 

dal 

dai  or  da' 

dallo 

dagli 

dàlia 

dàlie 

dall' 

A,  to 

al 

ài   or  a' 

allo 

àgli 

alla 

alle 

all' 

/«,  in 

nel 

nei  or  né' 

nello 

negli 

nella 

nelle 

nelP 

Cotiy  with 

col 

eòi  or  co' 

còllo 

càgli 

còlla 

còlle 

coli' 

Su,  on 

sul 

sui  or  su' 

sullo 

sugli 

sulla 

sulle 

sull' 

Per,  for 

pel 

pei  or// 

per  lo 

per  gli 

per  la 

per  le 

per  V 

Ex.  :  Del  padre,  of  the  father  ;  dai  padri,  by  the  fathers. 

Allo  spècchio,  to  the  mirror  ;  negli  spècchi,  in  the  mirrors. 
Còlla  madre,  with  the  mother  ;  còlle  madri,  with  the  mothers. 
StdV  uòmo,  on  the  man  ;  per  gli  uòmini,  for  the  men. 

a.   The  word  "  some  "  is  frequently  rendered  in  Italian  by  dì 
with  the  definite  article.     This  is  called  the  partitive  genitive. 


Ex.  :   Datemi  del  vino,  give  me  some  wine. 
Delle  bèlle  còse,  some  fine  things. 


13.  In  the  following  cases  the  definite  article  is  used  in 
Italian,  though  not  in  English  :  — 

a.  Before  the  possessive  pronouns  :  as  //  nòstro  giardino,  "  our 
garden"  ;  /  suoi  fratèlli,  "his  brothers."  When,  however,  the  pos- 
sessive quahfies  an  otherwise  unmodified  noun  in  the  singular  ex- 
pressing relationship,  the  article  is  generally  omitted  :  as  mia 
madre,  "my  mother."     For  a  fuller  statement  see  45,  a. 

b.  Before  an  abstract  noun  or  one  denoting  a  whole  class, 
unless  the  sense  is  partitive. 


ARTICLES.  9 

Ex.  :  L'uomo  propóne,  man  proposes. 

I  fióri  nàscono  dal  séme,  flowers  spring  from  the  seed. 

La  mòrte  è  il  peggióre  dei  mali,  death  is  the  worst  of  evils. 

c.  Before  a  noun  and  adjective  used  either  in  a  specific  or  in 
a  general  (but  not  in  a  partitive)  sense. 

Ex.  :  L'anno  scórso,  last  year  (i.  e.,  the  last  year). 

II pòvero  Luigi  non  viene,  (the)  poor  Lewis  doesn't  come. 
Gli  uòmini  buòni,  good  men  (/.  e.,  all  good  men). 

d.  Before  a  title  followed  by  a  proper  name  :  as  la  regina  Vit- 
toria, "  Queen  Victoria  "  ;  //  signor  Bruni,  "  Mr.  Brown."  It  is 
not  used,  however,  before  Don,  Messer,  and  Ser. 

e.  Before  family  names  ;  often  before  given  names  of  women  ; 
occasionally  before  given  names  of  well-known  men. 

Ex.  :  //  Bianchi  e  mòrto,  White  is  dead  ;  la  Patti  canta.  Patti  sings. 
Conósco  V  Olivia,  I  know  Olivia  ;  Dante  or  //  Dante,  Dante. 

f.  Before  names  of  countries  and  continents  :  as  la  Svizzera, 
"  Switzerland  "  ;  alP  Italia,  "  to  Italy  "  ;  per  P  Europa,  "  for 
Europe."  But  the  article  is  omitted  after  in  in  phrases  that 
denote  going  to  or  dwelling  in  a  country  ;  and  often  after  di  or 
in  when  the  preposition  with  the  name  of  a  country  is  equivalent 
to  an  adjective  of  nationality  :  as  vado  i?i  Germania,  "  I  go  to  Ger- 
many "  ;  rimango  in  Frància,  "  I  remain  in  France  "  ;  la  regina 
d' Inghilterra,  "  the  queen  of  England  "  ;  il  vino  di  Spagna,  "  the 
wine  of  Spain  "  ;  il  teatro  in  Italia,  "  the  drama  in  Italy." 

In  all  the  above  cases  (beginning  with  13,  a)  the  article, 
unless  it  v^rould  be  employed  in  English,  is  omitted  when 
the  noun  is  used  as  a  vocative  or  is  modified  by  a  numeral 
or  a  pronominal  adjective.     It  is  often  omitted  in  lists. 

Ex.  :  Quésta  stia  òpera,  this  work  of  his. 

Signóra  Mónti,  cÓ7ne  sta,  Mrs.  Monti,  how  do  you  do? 

Italia,  ti  rivedo,  Italy,  I  see  thee  again. 

Fède,  speranza,  carità,  faith,  hope,  and  charity. 


IO  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

Vieni,  amico  mio,  come,  my  friend. 

Ha  parécchi  vizi,  he  has  several  bad  habits. 

Due  bellissimi  cani,  two  very  fine  dogs. 

THE    INDEFINITE    ARTICLE. 

14.  Masculine:  — 

a.  Un  before  a  vowel  or  any  consonant  except  s  impure  and  s. 

b.  Uno  before  s  impure  or  z.  * 

Ex.  :    Un  padre,  a  father  ;  un  uòmo,  a  man. 

Un  anello,  a  ring  ;  ano  spècchio,  a  mirror. 
(/no  sciame,  a  swarm  ;  Tino  zio,  an  uncle. 

15.  Feminine:  — 

Una,  which  becomes  un''  before  a  vowel. 
Ex.  :    Ujta  mddre,  a  mother  ;  un''  óra,  an  hour. 

16.  In  the  follov^ing  cases  the  indefinite  article,  though 
expressed  in  English,  is  omitted  in  ItaUan  :  — 

a.  Before  a  predicate  noun  expressing  occupation,  rank,  or 
nationality,  and  not  accompanied  by  an  adjective. 

Ex.  :   Égli  è  poèta,  he  is  a  poet  ;  sÓ7io  7narchése,  I  am  a  marquis. 
Siete  italiano,  you  are  an  Italian. 

b.  Generally  before  an  antecedent  (of  a  relative  clause)  used 
in  apposition  to  a  preceding  noun  modified  by  a  definite  article  or 
a  demonstrative  pronoun. 

Ex.  :   U  Arno,  fithne  che  travèrsa  Firenze,  the  Arno,  a  river  which 
traverses  Florence. 

c.  After  da  meaning  "  as,"  "  like,"  or  "  for."    See  79,  g. 
Ex.  :   Da  uòmo,  like  a  man. 

*  Some  writers  use  un  before  z  and  before  see-  or  sci-. 


NOUNS.  •'        II 


EXERCISE  I. 


La  parte  più  alta  del  nòstro  còrpo  è  il  capo.    Il  capo  è  attaccato 

highest  is  is     attached 

al  còllo,  e  il  còllo  è  attaccato  al  trónco.     La  parte  davanti  del 

front 

capo  si  chiama  viso.     Nel  viso   ci   sono  la  frónte,  gli  òcchi,  il 

is-called  there    are  eyes 

naso,  la  bócca,  il  mento.     Cògli  òcchi  si  vedono  le  còse.     Co] 

we-see  things 

naso  si  sentono  gli  odóri.     Còlla  bócca  si  mangia,   si  béve,   si 

we-smell  odors  we-eat  we-drink  we- 

respira.     Respirare  è  mandare  1'  ària  giù  nel  petto,  e  pòi  riman- 

breathe 

darla  fuòri.     Nói  respiriamo  1'  ària.     Levate  un  pésce  dall'  acqua, 

it  We         breathe  Take 

muore  :  levate  T  ària  a  nói,  e  nói  morremo. 

it-dies  take  front  us  shall-die. 

EXERCISE  2. 

Mr.  Rossi  is  a  merchant.      Leaving  Italy,  he-went-away  last 

è  Lasciando  partì 

year  to  France,  a  country  which  he-wished  to-visit  with  his  brother 

per  voleva  visitare 

and  a  friend  of  the  family.     But  he-returned  to  Italy  the  same 

tornò  in 

month,  saying  :  "Travelling^  bores-me.   Another  time  I-shall-make 

dicendo        viaggiare  (m.)        mi  sécca  Un^  altra  farò 

a  Study  of  the  customs  of  France.    Paris  is  a  big  city  ;  we-have- 

costùnti  {ja.. -^S)  grande  vi  abbiami 

seen  some  ^  fine  things  ;  but  I-prefer  the  land  of  Garibaldi  and 

veduto  bèlle    f^j^(f.  pi.)  mi  piace  piit 

of  King  Victor  Emmanuel." 

1  See  13,  b.  2  See  12,  a. 


NOUNS. 

17.  Italian  nouns  are  not  declined.  Possession  is  de« 
noted  by  the  preposition  di:  as  lo  specchio  di  mio  pddre^ 
**my  father's  looking-glass." 


12  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

GENDER. 

18.  There  are  no  neuter  nouns  in  Italian.* 

Nouns  denoting  males  and  females  keep  their  natural 
gender  :  except  guida,  "  guide  "  ;  guàrdia,  "guard  "  ;  per- 
sóna, "  person  "  ;  sentinella,  "  sentinel  "  ;  spia,  "  spy  "  ;  ve- 
détta, "  scout"  ;  which  are  feminine. 

Ex.  :   II  fratèllo,  the  brother  ;  mia  sorèlla,  my  sister. 
//  poèta,  the  poet  ;  la  poetéssa,  the  poetess. 
Una  spia,  a  spy  ;  la  nostra  guida,  our  guide. 

19.  Of  nouns  denoting  objects  without  sex  some  are 
masculine,  some  feminine.  Their  gender  can  often  be 
determined  by  the  final  letter.  All  Italian  nouns  end  in 
a,  e,  i,  0,  or  u'.-f  — 

a.  Those  ending  in  a  are  feminine  ;  except  colèra,  "  cholera,'* 
qualcòsa,  "  something,"  Greek  neuters  in  -ma,\  many  geographi- 
cal names,  and  a  few  other  words,  mostly  foreign. 

Ex.  :    Un''  óra,  an  hour  ;  un  telegramma,  a  telegram. 
//  Canada,  Canada;  il  sofà,  the  sofa. 

b.  Of  those  ending  in  e  and  /  some  are  masculine,  some  femi- 
nine.   All  ending  in  -zióne,  -gióne,  or  -tedine  are  feminine. 

Ex.  :   //  fume,  the  river  ;  la  pace,  peace. 

Un  di,  a  day  ;  una  metròpoli,  3.  metropolis. 
La  ragióne,  the  reason  ;  la  servitùdine,  service. 

c.  Those  ending  in  o  are  masculine  ;  except  mano,  "  hand." 
Ex.  :   //  ginòcchio,  the  knee  ;  la  mano,  the  hand. 

*  Latin  neuters  become  masculine  in  Italian;  masculines  and  feminines 
retain  their  Latin  gender.     This  rule  has  very  few  exceptions. 

t  A  few  foreign  nouns  used  in  Italian  end  in  a  consonant:  as  làpis, 
"pencil"  (J.  làpis,  "the  pencils").  Nouns  in  -o  or  -e  often  drop  that  vowel 
if  the  preceding  consonant  is  /,  n,otr:  as  càne=can,  "dog." 

X  Mostly  scientific  terms. 


NOUNS.  13 


d.  Those  ending  in  u  are  feminine;  except  soprappiiiy  "sur- 
plus," and  a  few  foreign  words. 

Ex.  :  La  virtù,  virtue  ;  il  ba7nbù,  bamboo. 


20.  Any  other  part  of  speech  (except  an  adjective*) 
used  as  a  noun  must  be  masculine. 

Ex.  :  //  viaggiare,  travelling. 

21.  Masculine  names  of  trees  in  ^  or  ^  have  a  feminine 
form  m  a  Qx  e  respectively,  denoting  their  fruit  ;  but  il 
dàttero  y  "date,"  il  fico,  "fig,"  il  limóne,  "lemon,"  il  pómo  y 
"apple,"  are  always  the  same,  whether  denoting  the  tree 
or  the  fruit. 

Ex.  :  Un  susino,  a  plum-tree  ;  una  susina,  a  plum. 
//  nóce,  the  walnut-tree  ;  la  nóce,  the  walnut. 
Quésti  fichi,  these  fig-trees,  these  figs. 

NUMBER. 

22.  Feminines  in  unaccented  a  form  their  plural  by 
changing  a  into  e. 

Ex.  :  Lm.  strada,  the  street  ;  le  strade,  the  streets. 
Una  bugia,  a  lie  ;  le  bugie,  lies. 

a.  Feminines  in  -ca  and  -ga  form  their  plural  in  -che  and  -ghe 
respectively  (the  h  being  inserted  merely  to  indicate  that  the  c 
and  g  keep  their  hard  sound) . 

Ex.  :  UiC  oca,  a  goose  ;  mólte  òche,  many  geese. 

La  bottéga,  the  shop  ;  parécchie  bottéghe,  several  shops. 


Adjectives  of  course  have  the  gender  of  the  nouns  they  represent. 


14  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

b.  Nouns  in  unaccented  -eia  and  -gia  form  their  plural  in  -ce 
and  -ge  respectively.* 

Ex.  :  Lagud7tcia,  the  cheek;  le  guànce,  the  cheeks. 

Una  ciliègia,  a  cherry  ;  tante  ciliege,  so  many  cherries. 

23.    Masculines  in  unaccented  a  and  all  nouns  in  unac» 
cented  o  and  e  (not  ie)  form  their  plural  in  L  t 

Ex.  :  Un  poèta,  a  poet  ;  due  poèti,  two  poets. 
Z<?  ^/«c,  the  uncle  ;  gli  zìi,  the  uncles. 
La  mano,  the  hand  ;  le  mie  mani,  my  hands. 
Un  mése,  a  month  ;  tre  mési,  three  months. 
La  cornice,  the  frame  ;  quattro  cornici,  four  frames. 

a.  Masculines  in  -ca  and  -ga  form  their  plural  in  -chi  and  -^A/ 
respectively. 

Ex.  :  //  monarca,  the  monarch  ;  /  moìiàrchi,  the  monarchs. 
//  collèga,  the  colleague  ;  /  colleglli,  the  colleagues. 

<^.  Nouns  in  unaccented  -io  form  their  plural  by  changing  -io 
to  -/  (often  written  /,  /,  or  //) . 

Ex.  :  Lo  spècchio,  the  mirror  ;  gli  spècchi,  the  mirrors. 

//  ciliègio,  the  cherry-tree  ;  /  ciliègi,  the  cherry-trees. 

c.  Nouns  in  -go  form  their  plural  in  -ghi.  Nouns  in  -co  form 
their  plural  in  -chi  if  the  penult  is  accented,  otherwise  in  -ci. 

Ex.'  :  //  castigo,  the  punishment  ;  i  castighi,  the  punishments. 
Un  catàlogo,  a  catalogue  ;  due  catàloghi,  two  catalogues. 
//  fico,  the  fig  ;  cinque  fichi,  five  figs. 
Antico,  ancient  ;  gli  antichi,  the  ancients. 
Un  mèdico,  a  doctor  ;  sèi  mèdici,  six  doctors. 

This  rule  has  a  number  of  exceptions.  In  the  following  lists^ 
words  whose  irregular  plural  is  rare  are  omitted. 

*  Provincia  has  Provincie.  In  general  borrowed  words  and  words  whose 
plural  is  necessarily  very  rare  keep  the  i  :  audàcia,  audàcie. 

t  In  old  Italian  and  in  poetry  words  in  -elio  and  -ale  often  form  their  plural 
in  -egli  or  -ei,  -agli  or  -ai  :  capéllo,  capei. 


NOUNS. 


15 


(i)  Compound  nouns  in  -logo  denoting  persons  engaged  in 
the  sciences,  and  ali  compound  nouns  in  -fago  form  their  plural 
in  'gi* 

Ex.:  //yfj'/^?/*?^^»,  the  physiologist  ;  /  ^^^/^/(C^/,  physiologists. 
Antropòfago,  cannibal  ;  antropófagi,  cannibals. 

(2)  The  following  words  form  their  plural  in  -ci,  although  the 
penult  is  accented  :  — 

amico  greco  inimico  nemico  porco  f  ■ 

Greco  has  a  regular  plural  in  the  expression  vini  grechi. 

(3)  The  following  words  form  their  plural  m  -chi,  although  the 
penult  is  unaccented  :  — 

làstrico  rammàrico 

mànico  risico 

pàrroco  sciàtico 

pizzico  stomaco 


àbbaco 

fàrmaco 

acròstico 

indaco 

càrico  X 

intonaco 

diméntici 

0% 

intrinseco 

strascico 
tossico 
tràffico 
vàlico  § 


Acròstico  and  fàrmaco  have  also  regular  plurals. 


d.  Some  masculines  in  0  have  an  irregular  plural  in  a  ;  this 
plural  is  feminine.  They  are  :  centinaio,  "  hundred  "  ;  migliàio, 
"  thousand  "  ;  miglio,  "  mile  "  ;  pàio,  "  pair  "  ;  uovo,  "  Qgg^ 

Many  masculines  in  0  have  this  irregular  feminine  plural  in  a 
besides  the  regular  masculine  plural  in  i.  The  most  common 
are  :  bràccio,  "  arm  "  ;  dito,  "  finger  "  ;  frutto,  "  fruit  "  ;  ginocchio, 
"  knee  "  ;  grido,  "  shout  "  ;  labbro,  "  lip  "  ;  légno,  "  wood  "  ;  77ièm' 
òro,  "  member  "  ;  muro,  "wall  "  ;  orécchio,  "  ear  "  ;  osso,  "  bone." 


*  Likewise  the  rare  or  obsolete  words  :  fiemmagògo^  idragògo,  ttietallùrgo, 
sirgo  (also  reg.  plur.),  sortilego.  "  Magicians  "=  mdghi,  "magi"=  màgi. 

t  Likewise  the  rare  words:  aprico,  lombrico  (also  reg.),  uvamico,  vico. 

X  Likewise  its  compounds. 

§  Likewise  the  rare  or  obsolete  words:  fldccico,  mdntaco  (also  reg.), 
estàtico,  sjilàccico,  stàtico  (noun),  ùncico. 


l6  ITALIAN     GRAMMAR. 

Ex.  :  Un  pàio,  a  pair  ;  sètte  paia,  seven  pairs. 

//  mio  bràccio,  my  arm  ;  le  tue  braccia,  thy  arms. 
//  labbro,  the  lip  ;  le  labbra  or  /  labbri,  the  lips. 
Un  òsso,  a  bone  ;  le  ossa  or  gli  òssi,  the  bones. 

Bràccio,  ginòcchio,  labbro,  and  orécchio  nearly  always  have  the 
irregular  plural  when  denoting  the  two  arms,  knees,  lips,  or  ears 
belonging  to  the  same  body. 

24.  All  monosyllables,  and  all  nouns  ending  in  ?,  ie,  «, 
an  accented  vowel,  or  a  consonant,  are  invariable. 

Ex.  :  //  re,  the  king  ;  /  re,  the  kings. 

//  brindisi,  the  toast  ;  i  britidisi,  the  toasts. 
Una  spècie,  a  kind  ;  òtto  spècie,  eight  kinds. 
La  virtù,  virtue  ;  le  virtil,  the  virtues. 
Una  città,  a  city  ;  dièci  città,  ten  cities. 

26.  The  following  nouns  have  irregular  plurals  :  bée^ 
"ox,"  pi.  buoi;  dio,  "god,"  pi.  déi^ ;  móglie,  *'wife,"  pi. 
mógli;  udmOy  "man,"  pi.  uòmini. 

EXERCISE  3. 

Gli  uccèlli,  le  farfalle,  i  pésci,  il  cane,  il  micio,  le  lucèrtole 
sóno^  tutti  animàh.  Il  gatto  e  il  cane  sóno^  animali  che  hanno  ^ 
quattro  gambe,  hanno ^  quattro  piedi,  e  però  si  chiamano'*  qua- 
drùpedi. Il  leone  è  ^  il  più  bèllo  e  il  più  maestóso  dèi  quadrùpedi. 
GU  uccèlh  hanno  ^  due  zampe  ;  ed  hanno  ^  le  ah  e  con  le  ali  vo- 
lano.^ Anche  le  farfalle  hanno  ^  le  ah,  anche  le  àpi  hanno  ^  le  ali, 
e  volano.^  Le  mósche,  le  zanzare,  le  vèspe,  e  pòi  mólti  altri  ani- 
malini,  slmili  a  quésti,  si  chiamano*  insètti.  Gli  uccèlli  e  gì'  in- 
sètti nàscono^  dalle  uova.  Tutti  quésti  animali  vivono^  in  mèzzo 
all'  ària.  I  pésci  vivono^  in  mèzzo  all'  acqua.  I  pésci  non  hanno ^ 
gambe;  hanno ^  dàlie  parti  quelle  alettine;  e  con  quéste  piccole 

*  The  article  used  with  dèi  is  gli  :  gli  dèi. 


NOUNS.  17 

alétte  e  con  la  còda  nuqtano®  e  guizzane  via  nell'  acqua,  lèsti  lèsti 
cóme  un  lampo.  Quelle  alétte  si  chiamano^  pinne.  Le  lucèrtole 
striscian'^  su'  muri,  hànno^  delle  zampine,  ma  rasenti  rasenti  al 
còrpo,  e  quando  si  muòvono^''  anche  sulla  tèrra,  strisciano.^^  Le 
sèrpi  non  hanno  ^  gambe  ;  e  quésti  animali  che  non  hanno  ^  gambe 
e  che  strisciano"  sulla  tèrra,  cóme  le  lucèrtole  e  le  sèrpi,  si  chia- 
mane rèttih. 

^  ^=:is;  sano  =  ave.  ^  Have.  ^  They  have.  *  Si  chiamano— zxq  called. 
^  They  fly.  ^  Are  born.  '''  Live.  ^  They  swim.  ^  Dart.  '^^  Si  muòvono 
—  they  move.     ^^  Crawl,  they  crawl. 

EXERCISE   4.^ 

Mignonettes  are^  bom  from  the  seed.  The  seed,  placed  under 
ground,  has^  sprouted;  from  one  side  it-has '^  put-out  *  shoots, 
which  have-spread-out'  through^  the  ground,  and  from  one  side 
it-has^  sent  forth  the  stalk,  the  little-branches,^  the  leaves,  and^  the 
flowers.  Like  mignonettes,*  many  other ^^  plants,  herbs,  and^  flowers 
spring^''  from  the  seed.  Flowers,  herbs,  grain,  and  trees  are- 
called"  vegetables.  Vegetables  have^  roots,  trunk,  branches, 
twigs,  leaves,  flowers,  and^  fruit.  Plants  first  produce^  the  flower 
and  then  the  fruit.  The  trunk  or  stalk  of  plants  is^  that^  which 
rests"  on  the  roots  and^^  comes ^^  out  from  the  ground ;^^  it-is- 
covered^*  with^^  branches  and  with  ^^  leaves.  Of  the  stalk  of  plants, 
. —  for  instance,  of  the  trunk  of  trees,  —  we-make-use^  for  many 
purposes  ;  we-make^^  furniture,  doors,  windows,  the  beams  that 
support^  ceilings,  ships,  carriages,  and^  cars.  The  branches  of 
trees  are-burned, ^^  and  give-us^^  fire.  Vegetables  in-order- to ^  live 
have  ^  need  of  earth,  of  water,  and  ^  of  light. 

^  See  13,  b.  2  is  =  <?;  2xt.  =  s6no.  ^  Has,  it  \iz.%=ha\  ha.ve=àanno. 
*  Mésso.  5  Si  sano  discése.  ^  Fra.  "^  Ramicélli.  ^  Insert  "  and  so." 
^  Omit.  1*^  Nàscono.  11  Si  chiamano.  ^'^  Fanno.  ^^  Quello.  1*  Pòsa. 
1°  Insert  "which."  i»  Viene.  ^^  Insert  "and."  i»  Si  ricuòpre.  i^  Di. 
^  Ci  serviamo.  ^i  Facciamo.  22  Règgono.  ^3  £i  bruciano.  ^  Ci 
danno.      25  p^^^     26  Many  other  =  mólte  altre. 


l8  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

ADJECTIVES.* 

26.  Adjectives  agree  with  their  substantives  in  gender 
and  number.  An  adjective  modifying  two  nouns  of  dif- 
ferent genders  is  generally  put  in  the  masculine  plural. 

Ex.  :    //  gatto  è  pulito,  the  cat  is  neat  ;  stanze  pulite,  neat  rooms. 
Una  cdsa  e  un  giardino  bellini,  a  pretty  house  and  garden. 

27.  Numerai  and  pronominai  adjectives,  bello,  bravo ^ 
buòno ^  and  the  commonest  adjectives  of  size  and  quantity, 
precede  their  nouns  ;  adjectives  of  nationality,  shape,  and 
material  follow.  Adjectives  whose  use  is  prompted  by 
emotion,  and  adjectives  used  in  a  figurative  sense,  generally 
precede.  Otherwise,  of  the  noun  and  adjective,  the  one  that 
contains  the  chief  idea  comes  last. 

Ex.  :   Tròppo  pane,  too  much  bread  ;  le  grandi  città,  great  cities. 
Quésta  palla  rotónda,  this  round  ball  ;  due  cani,  two  dogs. 
La  buòna  madre,  the  good  mother  ;   pòver^  uòmo,  poor  man  ! 
La  vòstra  gentilissima  lèttera,  your  kind  letter. 
È  un  uòmo  ge?itillssi?no,  he  is  a  kind  man. 

GENDER   AND    NUMBER 

28.  Adjectives  ending  in  o  are  masculine,  and  form 
their  feminine  in  a.  Adjectives  in  e  are  invariable  in  the 
singular. 

Ex.  :   Buòno  stivalétto,  good  boot  ;  buòna  scarpa,  good  shoe. 
Ragazzo  felice,  happy  boy  ;  ragazza  felice^  happy  girl. 

29.  Adjectives  form  their  plural  in  the  same  way  as 
nouns  (see  22,  23). 

Ex.  :  Sèi  buòni  cassettóni,  six  good  bureaus;  otto  buòne  seggiole,  eight 
good  chairs. 
Dee  uòmini  felici,  two  happy  men  ;   tre  dònne  felici,  three 
happy  women. 


ADJECTIVES.  19 

a.  Parécchi,  "  several,"  has  for  its  feminine  parécchie. 

b.  Qualche,  "some,"  is  used  only  in  the  singular,  even  when 
the  meaning  is  plural  :  as  qualche  volta,  *' sometimes." 

c.  When  preceding  a  noun,  bèllo,  "  beautiful,"  has  forms  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  the  definite  article  ;  and  Santo,  "  Saint,"  and 
grande,  "  great,"  have  corresponding  forms  in  the  singular.* 
Buòno,  "  good,"  when  preceding  its  noun,  has  a  singular  similar 
to  the  indefinite  article.  The  mascuHne  of  these  words  (which  is 
the  only  irregular  part)  is,  therefore,  as  follows  :  — 

Before  any  consonant  except  s  impure  or  z  :  bel^  San,  gran,  buon  ; 

pi.  bèi,  Santi,  grandi,  buòni. 
Before  s  impure  or  z\  bèllo.  Santo,  grande,  buòno;  pi.  begli.  Santi, 

grandi,  buòni. 
Before  a  vowel  :  bell\  Sanf,  grand\  buon  ;  pi.  begli.  Santi,  grandi, 

buòni. 

When  used  after  a  noun  or  in  the  predicate  these  adjectives 
have  their  full  forms  {bèllo,  bèlli.  Santo,  Santi,  grande,  grandi, 
buòno,  buòni). 

Ex.  :  Un  bel  quadro,  a  fine  picture  ;  due  bèi  lètti,  two  fine  beds. 

Un  bèllo  scaffale,  a  fine  bookcase  ;  quattro  begli  stivali,  four 

fine  boots. 
Un  belV  àndito,  a  fine   hall  ;   mólti  begli  orològi,  many  fine 

clocks. 
Una  bèlla  stufa,  a  fine  stove  ;  parécchie  bèlle  tènde,  several  fine 

curtains. 
Il  palazzo  è  bèllo,  the  palace  is  fine  ;  le  sèdie  son  bèlle,  the  chairs 

are  beautiful. 
San  Pietro,  Santo  Stefano  e  Sanf  Antonio,    St.  Peter,  St. 

Stephen,  and  St.  Anthony. 
Un  gran  fuòco,  a  big  fire  ;  grandi  camini,  big  fire-places. 

*  Gran  is,  moreover,  often  used  in  the  fem.  sing,  (for  grande),  and  some- 
times in  the  plur.  (for  grandi)  ;  it  is  regularly  used  before  fem.  sing,  nouns  in 
ce,  and  in  the  expression  una  gran  bella  (or  brutta)  còsa. 


20  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

//  grande  scaldino,  the  big  foot-warmer  ;  dièci  grandi  spilli, 

ten  big  pins. 
Un  grande  sciame,  a  great  swarm  ;  il  grande  zipolo,  the  large 

bung. 
Un  grand''  armàdio,  a  big  wardrobe  ;   vénti  grandi  àlberi, 

twenty  big  trees. 
Una  grande  càmera,  a  large  bedroom  ;  cinque  grandi  finèstre, 

five  big  windows. 
Il  salòtto  è  mólto  grande,  the  parlor  is  very  large. 
Un  buon  lÙ7ne,  a  good  lamp  ;  buòni  fiammiferi,  good  matches. 
//  buòno  sgabèllo,  the  good  stool  ;  nòve  buòni  scolari,  nine  good 

pupils. 
//  buon  òlio,  the  good  oil  ;  parécchi  buòni  aghi,  several  good 

needles. 
Ù7ta  buòna  cucina,  a  good  kitchen  ;  le  buòne  candéle,  the  good 

candles. 
//  bambino  è  buòno,  the  child  is  good. 

30.  Any  adjective  of  either  gender  or  either  number 
may  be  used  as  a  noun. 

Ex.  :  /  buòni,  the  good  ;  la  bèlla,  the  beautiful  woman. 

COMPARISON. 

31.  All  Italian  adjectives  form  their  comparative  by 
prefixing //?)j  "more,"  and  their  superlative  by  prefixing 
the  definite  article  to  the  comparative.  When  the  superla- 
tive immediately  follows  the  noun,  this  article  is  omitted. 

Ex.  :  Bèllo,  beautiful  ;  piii,  bèllo,  more  beautiful  ;   il  più  bèllo,  the 
most  beautiful. 
Lungo,  long  ;  più  hingo,  longer  ;  //  più  hingo,  the  longest. 
Im  via  più  córta,  the  shortest  way. 

a.  The  following  adjectives  have  an  irregular  comparison  in 
addition  to  the  regular  one  :  — 

Alto,  high  ;  pii'i  alto  or  superióre;  il  piii  alto  or  il  superióre. 
Basso,  low  ;  più  basso  or  inferióre  ;  il  più  basso  or  /'  inferióre- 


ADJECTIVES.  21 

Buòno,   good  ;  piii   buòno  or  jniglióre  ;  *   il  più   buòno  or  // 

migliòre. 
Cattivo,  bad  ;  più  cattivo  or  peggióre  ;  *  il  più  cattivo  or  il 

peggióre. 
Grande,  big  ;  più  grdìide  or  maggióre  ;  il  più  grdftde  or  il 

maggióre. 
Piccolo,  small  ;  più  piccolo  or  minóre  ;   il  più  piccolo  or  il 

minóre. 

"Higher"  and  "lower"  are  commonly  rendered  hy  più  dito 
axid  più  basso  ;  superióre  and  inferióre  generally  mean  "  superior  " 
and  "inferior."  Migliòre  and  peggióre  are  more  used  than  più 
buòno  and  ////  cattivo^  which  have  the  same  sense.  "Larger" 
and  "smaller"  are  g^ntxdX\^  piic  grande  dcaA  piii  piccolo  ;  maggióre 
and  minóre  usually  signify  "older  "  and  "younger." 

Ex.  :  Noi  sidmo  7niglióri  di  lóro,  we  are  better  than  they. 

Quésta  sdla  da  prdnzo  e  la  più  grdnde,  this  dining-room  is  the 

biggest. 
Pietro  e  il  fratèllo  7ninóre,  Peter  is  the  youngest  brother. 

32.  The  adverb  "less"  is  expressed  by  meno,  "least"  by 
//  meno.  "As  .  .  .  as,"  "so  .  .  .  as"  are  tanto  .  .  .  qiidntOy 
tanto  .  .  .  cóme,  cosi  .  .  .  cÓ7ne,  or  simply  quanto. 

Ex.  :  Quella  stdnza  è  la  meno  bellina,  that  room  is  the  least  pretty. 
Pdolo  non  è  tdnto  buòno  cÓ7ne  Roberto,  Paul  isn't  so  good  as 

Robert. 
Giovdnni  è  dito  qudnto  Filippo,  John  is  as  tall  as  Philip. 

33.  "Than"  is  che. 

Ex.  :  L  albèrgo  e  più  grdnde  che  bèllo,  the  hotel  is  bigger  than  it  is 
beautiful. 

But  before  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  or  a  numeral  "than"  is 
rendered  by  the  preposition  di  (see  12).  If,  however,  this 
"than"  is  preceded  by  a  word  meaning  "rather,"  it  is 
translated  che. 

*  The  adverbs  «  better  "  and  "worse  "  are  meglio  and  pèggio. 


22  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

Ex.  :    Riccardo  I  peggióre  di  7ne,  Richard  is  worse  than  I. 
Vói  siete  più  ricchi  di  nói,  you  are  richer  than  we. 
Métto  di  cinque,  less  than  five. 
Piuttòsto  la  mòrte  che  il  disonòre,  rather  death  than  dishonor. 

Before  an  inflected  verb  "  than  "  is  eke  non  or  di  quel  che. 
If  the  verb  has  a  negative  subject,  "than"  is  che. 

Ex.  :  Abbaia  pill  che  noti  mòrde,  he  barks  more  than  he  bites. 
Prométto  meno  di  quel  che  do,  I  promise  less  than  I  give. 
Più  lièto  che  nessun  figlio  lo  èra  stato,  happier  than  any  son 
had  been. 

34.  *'The  more  .  .  .  the  more,"  "the  less  .  .  .  the  less" 
^XQ più  .  .  .piti,  meno  .  .  .  meno.  "More"  and  "less"  after 
a  number  are  di  più,  di  meno.  In  speaking  of  time, 
"longer"  after  a  negative  is  più. 

Ex.  :  Più  stùdio,  più  imparo,  the  more  I  study,  the  more  I  learn 
Trétita  giórni  di  métto,  thirty  days  less. 
I^on  lo  vediamo  più,  we  see  him  no  longer. 

EXERCISE   5. 

II  sóle  è^  un  glòbo  grandissimo  e  sèmpre  infocato:  esso  è^ 
gr.inde  óltre  un  milióne  di  vòlte  più  della  tèrra  ;  e  dire  ^  che 
a'  nòstri  òcchi  apparisce^  tanto  più  piccolo  !  Anche  la  luna,  che 
splènde'*  durante  la  nòtte,  è^  rotónda,  ma  è^  mólto  più  piccola 
della  tèrra,  e  gira^  intórno  a  quésta^  contino vaménte.  La  luna 
non  ha^  luce  da  sé,  ma  la  ricéve^  dal  sóle.  Ecco^  perchè  la  luna 
óra  la  vediamo^  e  óra  non  la  vediamo^  più,  óra  ne  vediamo^ 
mèzza,  óra  uno  spicchio,  óra  un  po'  più,  óra  un  po'  meno,  secóndo 
che  di  èssa  ci  si  presenta^"  una  parte  maggióre  o  minóre  illumi- 
nàta  dal  sóle.  Le  stélle  sóno^  tutti  quéi"  pùnti  luminósi  che 
vediamo^  brillare  di^^  nòtte  nel  firmaménto.  Non  crediàte,^'^  però, 
che  le  stélle  siano^  piccole  cóme  nói  le  vediamo  ^  :  ci  paiono  ^* 
così  piccine  per  la  smisurata  distanza  che  córre  ^^  da  lóro  a  nói  ; 
ma  le  stélle  sóno^  grandissime,  e  ce  n'è  di  quelle^®  che  sóno^  in- 


AUGMENTATIVES    AND    DIMINUTIVES.  23 

finitamente  più  grandi  del  sóle.     Gli  è^  che  il  sóle  è^  meno  lon- 
tano di  èsse  dalla  tèrra  che  nói  abitiàmo.^^ 

^  jè=is;  sano,  siano  (subj.)  =  are;  ha  —  \izs>.  ^  To  think.  ^  n  seems. 
^  Shines.  ^  Turns.  ^  jt,  ^  £a  ricéve  =  receives  it.  ^  That  is.  ^  Fe- 
diamo =  we  see;  /a  vediamo  =  we  see  it;  /e  vediamo  =  we  see  them;  ne 
vediamo  — we  see  of  it.  1°  Ci  si  presenta  =  there  presents  itself  to  us. 
11  Those.  12  At.  1^  A^cw  crediate  =  ào  not  think,  i*  O"  pdiono  — they 
seem  to  us.  ^^  Intervenes,  i^  c^  ^'  ^  ^^^  ^^^^'//^  =  there  are  some,  i'''  In- 
habit. 

EXERCISE   6. 

The  moon  is^  in  the  middle  of^  the  sky.  The  moon  is^  round; 
it-looks"  perfectly  round  like  a  melon.  And  it-looks,^  too,  as  big 
as  a  melon.  The  moon  seems  ^  httle  because  it-is  ^  far,  far  from 
us  who  are^  on  the  earth.  The  moon  renders^  a  great  service  to 
men:  because  when  everything  is^  dark,  it''  illumines^  with  its 
beautiful  light  the  earth  which  we-inhabit.^  The  stars  are^*^  larger 
than  the  moon,  but  to-look-at-them^^  they-seem^^  smaller,  because 
they-are^°  so-much^^  further  than  the  moon.  The  most  beautiful,^^ 
the  most  intense^*  light  comes^^  from  the  sun. 

^  È.  ^  A.  3  Par  or  pdre.  *  Si  vede.  &  Sidmo.  6  Pa.  ^  ^ssa.  8  j^i. 
schidra.  ^  Abitidmo.  i*^  Sono.  "  A  vedérle.  12  pdiono.  1»  Tanto. 
1^  Both  adjectives  follow  the  noun,      i^  Viene. 


AUGMENTATIVES    AND    DIMINUTIVES; 
NUMERALS. 

AUGMENTATIVE   AND   DIMINUTIVE   ENDINGS. 

35.  Instead  of  a  word  expressing  size  or  quality  the 
Italians  often  use  a  suffix.  This  suffix  may  be  added  to  a 
noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  When  added  to  an 
adjective,  and  generally  when  added  to  a  noun,  it  takes 
the  gender  of  the  word  to  which  it  is  affixed  :  occasionally, 


24  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

however,  a  suffix  with  masculine  termination  is  added  to 
a  feminine  noun,  which  thereby  becomes  masculine.  A 
word  loses  its  final  vowel  before  a  suffix  ;  but  the  preced- 
ing  consonant,  if  it  be  c  or  g,  must  keep  its  former  quality  : 
as  Carlo  +  ino  =  Carlino,  vóce  +  one  =  vocióne^  pòco  -f-  ino  = 
pochiìio,  adagio  +  ino  =  adagino. 

a.  The  commonest  ending  is  -isstmo  (fem.  -issima),  "very," 
which  in  general  is  added  only  to  adjectives  and  adverbs.  Adverbs 
in  -ménte  add  the  -issima  before  the  -ménte  (see  85).  Any  adjec- 
tive may  take  it,  and  it  is  very  often  used  in  cases  where  it  would 
be  entirely  superfluous  in  English. 

Ex.  :   Largo,  wide  ;  larghisswio,  very  wide. 
Bé?ie,  well  ;  benissimo,  very  well. 
Grande,  big  ;  gravidissimo,  very  big. 
Fa  un  tempo  bellissimo,  it's  beautiful  weather. 
BellissÌ7naméjtte,  very  beautifully. 

Ò.  The  principal  suffix  denoting  bigness  is  -one;  it  is  always 
masculine,  but  has  a  rare  feminine  form,  -óna, 

Ex.  :   Libro,  book  ;  librone,  big  book. 

Cdsa,  house  ;  casójie,  large  house. 
Bòccia,  decanter  ;  boccióna,  big  decanter. 

c.  The  most  important  suffixes  denoting  smallness  are  -ino, 
-cino,  -icino,  -iccino,  -étto,  -èlio,  -cello,  -icéllo,  -arèllo,  -creilo,  -óttOy 
-ùccio,  -uzzo,  -uòlo,  with  their  fem.  -ina,  etc.  These  endings, 
especially  -ùccio,  are  often  used  to  express  affection  ;  some  of 
them  may  be  used  to  express  pity  or  contempt.  Otto  sometimes 
means  "  somewhat  large  "  instead  of  "  small." 

Ex.  :    Sorèlla,  sister  ;  sorellina,  little  sister. 
Bèllo,  beautiful  ;  bellino,  pretty. 
Brutto,  ugly  ;  briittino,  rather  ugly. 
Piazza,  square  ;  piazzetta,  little  square. 
Giorgio,  George  ;  Gior gètto,  Geòrgie. 


NUMERALS.  2$ 

Campana,  bell  ;  ca7npantllo,  little  bell. 
Aquila,  eagle  ;  aquilòtto,  eaglet. 
Casa,  house  ;  casetta,  rather  large  house. 
Giovanni,  John;  Giovanmiccio,  dear  little  Johnny. 
Pdzzo,  mad  ;  pazzarèlla,  poor  mad  woman. 
Pòvero,  poor  ;  poverini,  poor  things  ! 

d.   The  ending  -àccio  denotes  worthlessness. 

Ex.  :  Ròba,  stuff,  goods;  robàccia,  trash. 

Tèmpo,  weather  ;  tempaccio,  nasty  weather. 
Alfredo,  Alfred  ;  Alfreddccio,  naughty  Alfred. 

36.  Of  the  endings  added  to  nouns  -ino  is  by  far  the 
most  common  ;  the  only  ones  that  are  freely  used  to 
form  new  compounds  are  -ino,  "  little,"  -one,  "great,"  -ticcio, 
*'dear,"  and  -àccio,  "bad."  In  very  many  cases  endings 
lose  their  character  of  independent  suffixes,  and  become 
inseparable  parts  of  certain  words,  whose  meanings  they 
often  change  :  as  scala,  "  stairway  "  ;  scalifio,  "  stair  "  ; 
scaletto,  "ladder."  Some  suffixes  (as  -nolo)  are  rarely  used 
except  in  this  way.  Others  (as  -cino,  -icino,  -èlio,  -cèllo» 
-icèllo,  -aréllo,  -creilo)  cannot  be  attached  to  any  word  at 
pleasure,  their  use  being  determined  by  precedent  or 
euphony. 

37.  Sometimes  several  suffixes  are  added  at  once  to  the 
same  word  :  as  ladro,  "thief";  ladróne^  "terrible  thief"; 
ladroncelloy  "terrible  little  thief." 

NUMERALS. 

38.  The  cardinal  numerals  are  :  — 


I, 

uno. 

5> 

cinque. 

9, 

nòve. 

13,  trédici. 

2, 

dice. 

6, 

Sit. 

lo, 

dièci. 

14,  quattórdici 

3» 

tre. 

7, 

sette. 

II, 

ùndici. 

15,  quindici. 

4. 

quattro. 

8, 

otto. 

12, 

dódici. 

16»  sédici. 

26 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


17,  diciasette. 

18,  diciòtto. 

19,  diciatinòve. 

20,  vénti. 

21,  ventuno  or 

22,  ventidùe. 

23,  ventitré. 

24,  ventiquattro. 

25,  venticinque. 


26,  ventisei. 

27,  vefitisétte. 

28,  ventòtto  or 

29,  ventinove. 

30,  trénta. 

31,  trentuno  or 

32,  trentadùe. 
40,  quaranta. 


50,  cinquanta. 

60,  sessanta. 

70,  settanta. 

80,  ottanta. 

90,  novanta. 

100,  cento. 

loi,  centuno  or 

105,  centocinque. 

115,  cento  quindici. 


125,  r^«/<>  venti' 

cinque. 
2(X>,  dugénto  or 

duecènto. 
250,  dugènto  citt' 

quanta. 
300,  trecento. 
400,  quattrocento. 
lOCXD,  w///^. 
2000,  a^ji^  w/Za. 


£/>^^  has  a  femmine  ?/;/^  ;  when  used  adjectively  it  has 
the  same  forms  as  the  indefinite  article  ;  so  also  ventuno, 
etc.  The  plural  of  ;;^///^  is  w/Az.  "A  million  "  is  ?/??  ;;//- 
//^W  or  millióne,  of  which  the  plural  is  milióni  or  millióni. 

(i)  No  conjunction  is  used  between  the  different  parts 
of  a  number:  as  dugènto  quaranta,  ''two  hundred  and 
forty."  No  indefinite  article  is  used  before  ^^/^/^  and  mille  : 
as  ^/;/^^  //^n,  "a  hundred  books." 

(2)  (7^;^/^,  dugènto,  etc.,  when  followed  by  another  nu- 
meral of  more  than  two  syllables  may  lose  the  final  syllable 
-/f?  ;  as  seicènto  cinquanta  or  seicencinqudnta,  "  six  hundred 
and  fifty." 

(3)  "  Eleven  hundred,"  *'  twelve  hundred,"  etc.,  must  be 
rendered  millccènto,  7nille  dugènto,  etc.  :  as  mille  ottocènto 
ottantasètte,  1887. 

(4)  "Both,"  "all  three,"  etc.,  are  tutti  (fern,  tutte)  e  due, 
tutti  (fem.  tutte)  e  tre,  etc. 

a.  If  the  noun  modified  by  ventuno,  trentuno,  etc.,  follows  this 
numeral,  it  should  be  in  the  singular;  if  \\. precedes,  in  the  plural. 

Ex.  :  Sessantina  lira  or  lire  sessantuna,  61  francs. 

b.  In  dates  the  definite  article  is  prefixed  to  the  number  repre- 
senting the  year,  if  that  number  follows  a  preposition,  or  does  not 
follow  the  name  of  a  month. 


NUMERALS. 


27 


Ex.  :  Nel  7nille  ottocènto  ottantasétte,  in  1887. 

e.    "What  time  is  it?  "  is  che  óra  è?     "It  is  six,"  etc.,  is  sono 
J?  sèi,  etc.,  ore  being  understood.     "One  o'clock"  is  il  tócco, 

Ex.  :  Sono  le  due  e  jnèzzo,  it's  half-past  two. 

Sono  le  tre  e  dièci,  it's  ten  minutes  past  three. 

Ci  inducano  vénti  minuti  alle  quattro,  it's  twenty  minutes  to  four. 

Sono  le  cinque  meno  un  quarto,  it's  a  quarter  to  five. 

39.    The  ordinal  numerals  are  :  — 


1st, 

primo. 

I2th, 

duodècimo  or 

20th, 

ventesimo. 

2d, 

secóndo. 

dècimo  secóndo. 

2 1st, 

ventesimo  primo  or 

3d, 

tèrzo. 

13th, 

tredicèsimo  or 

ventunesimo. 

4th, 

quarto. 

dècimo  tèrzo. 

22d, 

ventesimo  secóndo 

5th, 

quinto. 

14th, 

quattordicèsimo  or 

or  ventiduesimo. 

6th, 

sèsto. 

dècimo  quarto. 

30th, 

trentesimo. 

7th, 

sèttimo. 

15th, 

quindicèsimo  or 

looth, 

centesimo. 

8th, 

ottavo. 

dècimo  quinto. 

lOISt, 

centesimo  primo. 

9th, 

nòno. 

1 6th, 

dècimo  sèsto. 

115th, 

centoquindicèsimo. 

loth, 

dècimo. 

17th, 

dècimo  sèttimo. 

200th, 

dugentèsimo. 

nth, 

undècimo  or 

1 8th, 

dècimo  ottavo. 

loooth. 

millèsimo. 

dècimo  pritjio. 

19th, 

dècimo  nòno. 

20OOth, 

duemilèsimo. 

Ali  of  them  form  their  feminines  and  plurals  like  other 
adjectives  in  o. 

Ex.  :  Le  settantèsime  quinte  còse.,  the  75th  things. 

a.  Ordinal  numerals  are  used  after  the  words  "  book,"  "  chap- 
ter," and  the  names  of  rulers  ;  but  no  article  intervenes. 

Ex.  :  Carlo  secóndo,  Charles  the  Second  ;  Pio  nòno,  Pius  IX. 

Libro  tèrzo,  Book  the  Third  ;  capitolo  quarto,  chapter  four. 

b.  For  the  day  of  the  month,  except  the  first,  a  cardinal  nunv 
ber  is  used. 

Ex.  :  H  dì  cinque  d''  aprile  or  //  cinque  aprile^  the  fifth  of  April. 
II primo  di  màggio,  the  first  of  May. 


28  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

c.  "  A  third,"  "  a  fourth,"  "  a  fifth,"  etc.,  are  un  tèrzo,  un  quar- 
to, un  quinto,  etc.  "Half"  is  la  metà;  the  adjective  "half"  is 
mèzzo, 

40.  "A  couple"  or  "a  pair"  is  tm  pàio.  "A  dozen" 
is  una  dozzina.  The  expressions  una  decina,  una  ventina, 
una  trentina,  etc.,  un  centinaio,  tin  migliàio,  mean  "about 
ten,"  "about  twenty,"  etc.  (see  23,  d).  "Once,"  "twice," 
etc.,  are  una  vòlta,  due  vòlte,  etc. 

Ex.  :  Un  pàio  di  scarpe,  a  pair  of  shoes. 

Una  cinguantma  di  persóne,  some  fifty  persons. 
V  ho  visto  parécchie  vòlte,  I've  seen  it  several  times. 

EXERCISE   7. 

Con  l'orològio  si  véde^  che  óre  sóno.^  Un  giórno  è^  venti- 
quàttr'  óre.  Cèrte  óre  del  giórno  è^  lume,  cèrte  óre  è^  bùio.  Un 
giórno  è  ^  ventiquàttr'  óre,  ma  sulla  móstra  dell'  orològio,  delle  óre 
ce  n'  è'*  segnate  dódici,  perchè  le  óre  del  giórno  si  contano^  dal- 
l' una  alle  dódici,  così  :  tócco,  due,  tre,  quattro,  cinque,  sèi,  sètte, 
òtto,  nòve,  dièci,  ùndici  e  dódici.  Arrivati  a  dódici  non  si  se- 
guita^ a  dire  trédici,  quattórdici,  e  via  fino  a  ventiquattro  ;  ma  si 
ricomincia''  da  capo  dal  tócco  e  si  arriva^  fino  a  dódici.  Il  cónto 
tóma^  lo  stésso:  infatti  le  óre  del  giórno  son"  ventiquattro;  e 
dódici  e  dódici,  sommati  insième,  formano^*'  ventiquattro.  Dódici 
óre  sono"  la  metà  del  giórno.  L'  orològio  ha^^  dódici  óre  ;  e  le 
ha  ^^  segnate  giro  giro  alla  móstra.  L'ora  è  ^  sessanta  minuti;  e 
r  orològio  segna"  anche  i  minuti.  Quelle  righettine  tórno  tórno 
alla  móstra,  fra  un'  óra  e  un'  altra,  sono"  i  sessanta  minuti  che 
formano ^M'  óra.  La  lancétta  grande  segna"  i  minuti.  La  lan- 
cétta piccina  segna"  le  óre.  La  lancétta  grande  ógni  óra  fa^^  il 
giro  di  tutti  e  sessanta  i  minuti  ;  gira^^  tutta  la  móstra.  La  lan- 
cétta piccola  ógni  óra  segna"  un  nùmero,  e  a  girar  tutta  la  móstra 
ci  métte ^'  dódici  óre,  perchè  dódici  son"  le  óre  segnate  sulla  mó- 


NUMERALS.  29 

stra.  Óra  sóno^  le  dódici;  tutte  e  due  le  lancétte  sono"  sulle 
dódici.  f>a  un'  óra  la  lancétta  grande  avrà  ^^  girata  tutta  la  mó- 
stra, e  sarà^  daccapo  sul  nùmero  12,  e  la  lancétta  piccina  sarà^^ 
suir  uno. 

1  Si  vede  =  we  see.  ^  jt  is.  ^  Is.  *  Ce  n'  e  =  there  are.  ^  Si  contano  =  are 
counted.  ^  A^<3«  j?  seguita— v^q.  don't  go  on.  '^  6'z  ricomincia  =  yf e  begin 
over  again.  ^  ■5'^  arriva  —  we  go.  ^  Amounts  to.  ^^  Make.  11  Are. 
12  Has.  13  j^g  Ila  —  it  has  them,  i*  Marks.  ^^  Makes.  1^  It  goes  around. 
17  a  métte  =  it  takes,     i^  ^ill  have,     i^  Will  be. 


EXERCISE  8. 

A  year  is^  365  days.  Every  seven  days  is^  a  week.  The  days 
of  the  week  are-called^:  Sunday,  Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday, 
Thursday,  Friday,  Saturday.  Sunday^  is^  a"*  hoHday;  the  other 
days  we-work,^  and  therefore  they-are-called^  working-days.  The 
year  is-divided^  into  twelve  months.  The  months  are-called^: 
January,  Februaiy,  March,  April,  May,  June,  July,  August,  Sep- 
tember, October,  November,  December.-^'  The  month  is^  thirty 
or  thirty-one  days.^^  When  the  month  begins,^  it-is-called*  the  first 
of  the  month  ;  the  second  day  is-called*  the  second  of  the  month, 
the  third,  the  third,  and  so-on^  until  the  thirtieth  or  thirty-first. 
January,  March,  May,  July,  August,  October,  and*  December  have^" 
thirty-one  days.  April,  June,  September,  and'*  November  have^" 
thirty  days.  February  is^  the  shortest  month,  because  it-has" 
twenty-eight  days  only.^  But  every  four  years  February  has" 
twenty- nine  days  ;  and  that^^  year  is-called^  leap-year.  The  year 
begins^  from  January;  January  is,^  then,"  the  first  month  of  the 
year.  The  year  ends^^  with  December;  so"  December  is^  the 
last  month  of  the  year. 

1  È.  2  Si  chiamano.  3  Use  def.  article.  *  Omit.  ^  Si  lavora.  ^  Si  divide. 
7  Comincia.  »  Si  dice.  »  Cost,  i»  Hanno.  "  Ha.  12  Sóli,  i^  Si 
chiama,  i*  Dtinque.  15  Finisce.  16  Queir,  vi  Use  no  article  with  the 
names  of  months,      i»  See  38,  Uno,  and  38,  a. 


30  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

DEMONSTRATIVE,    INTERROGATIVE,    RELA- 
TIVE,  AND    POSSESSIVE    PRONOUNS. 

41.  For  the  indefinite  pronouns,  see  86-91. 

42.  (i)  The  demonstrative  pronouns  used  adjectively 
are  quésto^  "this,"  and  quello  or  cotesto^  "that."  Cotesto 
(spelled  also  codesto)  is  used  of  objects  near  the  person 
addressed.  Quésto  and  cotesto  are  inflected  like  other 
adjectives  ;  but  they  generally  drop  o  before  a  vowel. 
Quello  is  inflected  like  bello  (see  29,  c). 

Ex.  :  Quesf  uòmo,  this  man  ;  quéste  ragazze^  these  girls. 

Quel  bambino y  that  infant  ;  quéi  fanciiilli,  those  children. 
QuelV  amico,  that  friend  ;  quégli  spòsi,  that  couple. 
Quello  zio,  that  uncle  ;  quelle  signóre,  those  ladies. 

Quésto  and  quello  are  also  used  substantively  for  "  this," 
"that,"  "this  one,"  "that  one":  "diS  fate  quésto,  non  fate 
quello,  "do  this,  don't  do  that." 

(2)  "This  man"  is  translated  by  quésti,  "that  man" 
by  quégli,  quéi,  or  cotesti  (rare)  ;  these  words  are  invaria- 
ble, refer  only  to  persons,  and  are  used  only  in  the  nomi- 
native singular.  Costui  and  colui  mean  respectively  the 
same  as  quésti  and  quégli,  but  are  not  defective,  having 
a  feminine  singular  costei,  colèi,  and  a  plural  (both  genders 
alike)  costóro,  colóro.  Costui  is  often  used  in  a  deprecia- 
tive  sense. 

Ex.  :  Quésti  I  francése  e  quégli  è  tedésco,  this  man  is  French  and 
that  one  is  German. 
Chi  è  costui,  who  is  this  fellow  ? 
Pdrlo  di  colili,  I  speak  of  that  man. 


PRONOUNS. 


31 


(3)  Ciò,  "this,"  "that,"  is  invariable,  and  represents  a 
whole  idea,  not  a  single  word:  as  ciò  è  véro,  "that's  so." 

a.  Quello  and  quésto,  quégli  and  quésti  mean  also  "  the  former," 
"  the  latter." 

b.  "He  who"  is  colui  che,  or  simply  chi.  "The  one  who, 
whom,  which,"  "that  which,"  "what"  is  quello  che  or  quel  che. 

Ex.  :  Chi  lavora  or  colui  che  lavora^  he  who  works. 
Quel  che  dico  io,  the  one  I  mean. 
A  quel  che  séfttc,  from  what  I  hear. 

43.  The  interrogative  "who,"  "whom,"  is  chi.  "What  V 
used  substantively  is  che,  che  còsa,  or  còsa.^  "What.'^"  used 
adjectively  is  che  or  quale.  "Which.?"  is  qtidle.  Quale 
has  a  plural  quali  ;  chi  and  che  are  invariable.  "  How 
much  Ì  "  is  quanto  {-a),  "  how  many  Ì  "  is  qtmnti  {-e). 

Ex.  :  Chi  vedo,  whom  do  I  see? 

Di  chi  parlate,  of  whom  do  you  speak? 
Che  còsa  dice,  what  does  he  say  ? 

Che  or  quali  libri  avete  comprato,  what  books  did  you  buy  ? 
Qiidle  di  quésti  volumi  è  il  primo,  which  of  these  volumes  is 
the  first? 

a.  The  interrogative  "  whose  "  is  di  chi. 

Ex.  :  Di  chi  è  quésto  bigliétto,  whose  card  is  this  ? 

b.  In  exclamations  "what  a,"  "what,"  are  rendered  by  che  or 
quale  without  any  article. 

Ex.  :  Che  bel  paese,  what  a  beautiful  country  ! 

44.  The  principal  relative  pronouns  are  che,  cui,  il  quale: 
they  are  ali  applied  to  both  persons  and  things,  and  mean 
"who,  "whom,"  "which,"  or  "that."     II  quale  is  inflected 

*  Cosa  (as  cosa  dice  Ì)  is  generally  avoided  in  written  Italian.  Note  that  chi 
is  used  in  indirect,  as  well  as  in  direct  questions. 


32  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

{la  quale,  i  quali,  le  quali).  Che  and  cui  are  invariable: 
in  general  che  is  used  only  as  subject  and  direct  object 
cui  only  after  prepositions  or  as  indirect  object.  In  poetr>f 
ónde  is  often  used  to  signify  of  which  or  from  which. 

Ex.  :   La  lingua  che  si  pària,  the  language  which  we  speak. 

D  uòmo  del  quale  si  tratta,  the  man  of  whom  we  are  speaking. 
Le  persóne  a  cài  or  alle  quali  parlo,  the  persons  to  whom  I 

speak. 
La  scritto  di  cài  parlo,  the  work  I  am  speaking  of. 

(i)  As  subject  or  direct  object  che  is  preferred  to  // 
quale,  unless  clearness  requires  the  latter. 

(2)  The  relative  "  whose  "  is  il  cui  or  del  quale. 

Ex.  :  Una  signóra,  il  cài  nóme  e  Lucia,  a  lady  whose  name  is  Lucy. 
Un  uòmo,  le  cui  figlie  conósco,  a  man  whose  daughters  I  know. 
V  autóre,  del  cui  libro  si  pària,  the  author  whose  book  we  are 

speaking  of. 
Le  chièse  delle  quali  si  vedono  le  cùpole,  the  churches  whose 

domes  we  see. 

(3)  The  relative  cannot  be  omitted  in  Italian. 
Ex.  :   Le  case  che  ho  comprate,  the  houses  I  have  bought. 

a,  "  Such  ...  as  "  is  tale  .  .  .  quale  ;  in  poetry  tale,  quale  have 
a  plural  tdi,  qudi  instead  of  tali,  quali.  "  As  much  as  "  is  tanto 
Quanto  ;  "  as  many  as  "  is  tanti  quanti. 

Ex.  :    Quale  è  il  padre  tale  è  il  figlio,  as  is  the  father,  so  is  the  son, 

Ò.   "  He  who  "  is  chi  or  colui  che  (see  42,  b). 

Ex.  :    Chi  ha  la  sanità  e  ricco,  he  who  has  health  is  rich. 

c.  "Whoever"  is  chiunque;  "whatever"  as  a  substantive  is 
tutto  quel  che  or  checche,  as  an  adjective  quale  che,  qualùnque  che^ 
qualùnque,  per  quanto.  These  words,  excepting  tutto  quel  c.ze^ 
all  take  the  subjunctive.     Checché  is  now  but  little  used. 


PRONOUNS.  33 

Ex.  :  Chiunque  siate,  whoever  you  may  be. 

Checche  facciate,  fatelo  bène,  whatever  you  do,  do  it  well. 
TMto  quel  che  volete,  whatever  you  wish. 

Qudli  che  siano  i  vòstri  motivi,  whatever  your  motives  may  be 
Qualùnque  siano  i  suoi  talènti,  whatever  his  talents  may  be. 
In  qualunque  stato  che  io  mi  trovi,  in  whatever  condition  I 

may  find  myself. 
Per  quante  ricchézze  égli  abbia,  whatever  riches  he  may  have. 

45.    The  possessive  pronouns  are  :  — 


My  :              m. 

,  il  mio, 

{.,  la  mia. 

m.  pl.j 

,  i  miei, 

f.pl. 

,  le  mie. 

Thy: 

il  tuo, 

la  tua, 

i  tuoi. 

le  tue. 

His,  her,  its  : 

il  suo, 

la  stia. 

i  suoi. 

le  sue. 

Our: 

il  nòstro. 

la  nòstra, 

i  nòstriy 

le  nòstre. 

Your: 

il  vòstro, 

la  vòstra. 

i  vòstri. 

le  vòstre. 

Their: 

il  lóro, 

la  lóro, 

i  lóro. 

le  lóro. 

Lóro  is  invariable  ;  the  others  agree  with  the  object  pos- 
sessed :  as  il  mio  naso,  ''  my  nose  "  ;  /a  sua  bócca,  "  his,  her 
mouth  "  ;  i  vòstri  òcchio  "your  eyes  "  ;  Ic  lóro  labbra^  *' their 
lips." 

When  the  possessive  stands  alone  in  the  predicate,  the 
article  is  omitted  if  the  possessive  is  used  adjectively. 

Ex.  :   Questo  cappèllo  e  7uio,  this  hat  is  mine. 

Quésto  cappello  è  il  mìo,  this  hat  is  mine  {i.e.,  the  one  that 
belongs  to  me). 

a.  The  article  (unless  it  might  be  used  in  English)  is  omitted 
before  the  possessive  :  (i)  When  a  numeral,  an  adjective  of  quan- 
tity, or  a  demonstrative  or  interrogative  adjective  precedes  it  :  as 
due  cani  suoi,  "two  dogs  of  his  "  (but  /  due  cd?ii  suoi,  "the  two 
dogs  of  his "  or  "his  two  dogs ") ;  mólti  miei  amici,  "many  friends 
of  mine"  (but  i  ?nólti  miei  amici,  "the  many  friends  of  mine" 
or  "my  many  friends")  ;  quésto  tuo  difètto,  "this  fault  of  thine." 
(2)  When  the  possessive  forms  part  of  a  title  :  as  Vòstra  Maestà, 


34  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

"Your  Majesty";  Sua  Altézza^  "His  Highness."  (3)  When  the 
possessive  modifies  a  noun  used  in  the  vocative  (in  this  case  the 
possessive  generally  follows  its  noun):  as  amico  mio,  "my  friend!" 
(4)  The  article  is  generally  omitted  also  when  the  possessive 
precedes  a  noun  in  the  singular  expressing  relationship  :  as  nostra 
madre,  "  our  mother."  But  if  the  noun  has  a  diminutive  ending, 
or  an  adjective  precedes  the  noun,  the  article  is  not  omitted  :  as 
il  tuo  fratellino,  "thy  little  brother";  la  vòstra  gentilissima  so- 
rella, "your  kind  sister."  (5)  The  article  is  omitted  also  in  certain 
phrases,  such  as  :  da  parte  mia,  "  for  me  "  ;  per  amor  mio,  "  for 
my  sake"  ;  in  casa  nòstra,  "in  our  house"  ;  a  mòdo  suo,  "in  his 
own  way  "  ;  ^  cólpa  vòstra,  "  it's  your  fault." 

b.  The  possessive,  when  not  necessary  for  clearness,  is  usually 
replaced  by  a  definite  article. 

Ex.  :  Cóme  sta  la  mdfnma,  how  is  your  mother? 

Ha  perduto  il  giudizio,  he  ha.s  lost  his  senses. 
Bàttono  i  piedi,  they  stamp  their  feet. 

c.  When  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  is  direct  object  of  a 
verb,  the  Italians  often  use  instead  of  the  possessive  a  conjunctive 
personal  pronoun  (see  47)  and  a  definite  article.  If  the  thing 
possessed  be  a  part  of  the  body  or  clothing,  this  construction  is  fre- 
quent, even  when  the  name  of  the  thing  is  not  object  of  a  verb. 

Ex.  :  Si  strappa  i  capélli,  he  tears  his  hair  (lit.,  he  tears  to  himself 

the  hairs). 
Mi  tàglio  il  dito,  I  cut  my  finger  (I  cut  to  myself  the  finger). 
//  cane  gli  agguantò  la  gamba,  the  dog  seized  his  leg  (seized 

to  him  the  leg). 
Mi  duole  il  capo,  my  head  aches  (to  me  aches  the  head). 

d.  When  the  possessor  is  not  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  "  his," 
"  her"  are,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  often  rendered  di  lui,  di  lèi: 
as  égli  non  conósce  il  di  lèi  cuòre,  "  he  does  not  know  her  heart." 

e.  "  A  ...  of  mine,  of  thine,"  etc.,  is  un  mio,  un  tuo,  etc.  :  as 
una  nòstra  cugina,  "a  cousin  of  ours." 


PRONOUNS.  35 


EXERCISE  9. 


Quando  cadde  ^  1'  impéro,  Siena  soffri^  meno  delle  altre  città 
toscane  dalle  invasiòni  dèi  bàrbari;  ma  venne ^  sótto  la  signoria 
dèi  Longobardi,  e  pòi  fu  ^  una  delle  città  libere  di  Carlomàgno, 
nei  cónti  e  baróni  del  quale,  arricchiti  dàlie  tèrre  e  dai  castèlli  che 
diede  ^  lòro^  V  imperatóre,  i  nòbili  senési  crédono^  trovare  1'  origine 
della  lóro  nobiltà.  Quésti  ladri  forestièri,  i  cui  nidi  nei  dintórni 
di  Firenze  i  cittadini  di  quésto  comune  cercavano*  di  distruggere, 
abbandonarono  ^  volontariamente  i  lóro  castèlli  nel  territòrio  senése, 
ed  entrarono  ^^  nella  città,  che  da  èssi  e  dai  véscovi  veniva*  abbel- 
lita di  grandi  palazzi  e  governata  con  una  mano  di  fèrro,  finché  ^^ 
i  comuni  non  ^^  si  levarono  ^  e  non  ^  fecero  ^  prevalére  il  lóro  diritto 
a  participàre  nella  còsa  pùbblica. 

i  Fell.  2  Suffered.  ^  it  came.  *  Was.  5  Gave.  ^  To  them.  '  Think, 
believe.  ^  Were  trying.  ^  Abandoned.  ^^  Entered.  ^  Finché  non^=^ 
until      12  5j  levarono  =  arose.     ^^  Made. 


EXERCISE   10. 

Charles  V  made  ^  of  Siena  a  fief  for  his  son  Philip  II,  who  ceded- 
it^  to  Cosimo  I,  and  the  latter  built- there ^  the  fort  which  the 
Spaniards  had-tried-to*  construct.  The  city  remained^  under  the 
rule  of  the  good  dukes  of  Lorraine,  until  Napoleon  made-it^  capi- 
tal of  the  department  of  the  Ombrone.  After  the  fall  of  the 
emperor,  it-returned^  under  the  dominion  of  the  dukes.  In*  i860 
it-was^  the  first  Tuscan  city  that  voted ^"  the  union  of  Italy 
un  ier  Victor  Emmanuel  II,  the  only  honest  king  of  whom  his- 
tory speaks." 

^  Fece.  2  £a  cedette.  ^  Vi  fabbricò.  *  Avevano  voluto.  ^  Restò.  ^  La 
fece.  "^  Ritornò.  »  See  38,  b.  ^  Fu.  i»  Votasse.  "  Fctrli,  which 
should  precede  its  subject. 


36  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 

46.  Personal  pronouns  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
conjunctive  and  disjunctive  :  the  conjunctive  forms  are 
those  used  as  direct  object  of  a  verb,  and  as  indirect  object 
without  a  preposition  ;  the  disjunctive  forms  are  those 
used  as  subject  of  a  verb,  and  as  object  of  a  preposition. 

Ex.  :   Egli    ve     lo    dà    per  me. 

He    to  you    it    gives      for     me. 

CONJUNCTIVE    FORMS. 

47.  Conjunctive  pronouns  are  always  unaccented,  and 
cannot  be  separated  from  the  verb,  which  they  sometimes 
follow  but  oftener  precede,  as  will  be  explained  in  48. 

They  are  used  only  as  direct  object  of  a  verb  or  as  indi- 
rect object  without  a  preposition.     The  forms  are  :  — 

Mi^  me,  to  me.  Ti,  thee,  to  thee. 

Ci,  us,  to  us.*  Vi,  you,  to  you. 

Si  (reflexive),  himself,  to  himself;  herself,  to  herself;   itself,  to  itself. 

Si  (reflexive),  themselves,  to  themselves. 

Lo,  him;*  gli,  to  him.f  La,  her;   le,  to  her. 

Li,  them  (masc.)  ;  lóro,  to  them.f        Le,  them  (fern.)  ;  lóro,  to  them. 

"It"  must  be  rendered  by  a  masculine  or  feminine  form, 
according  to  the  gender  of  the  noun  it  represents.  "  It  " 
representing  not  a  word,  but  a  whole  clause,  is  lo.% 

Ex.  :   Mi  conósce,  he  knows  me  ;  ti  do  i  libri,  I  give  thee  the  books. 
a  vedete,  you  see  us  ;  vi  dico  tutto,  I  tell  you  everything. 
Si  vèste,  he  dresses  himself;  si  divertono,  they  amuse  them- 
selves. 

*  In  old  Italian  and  in  poetry  ne  is  often  used  for  ci,  and  il  for  lo. 
t  In  conversation  li  is  often  used  for  gli,  and  gli  or  li  for  lóro. 
\  In  certain  idiomatic  phrases  la  represents  an  indefinite  object  :  as  pa' 
gdrla  cara,  "to  pay  dearly  for  it." 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  3/ 

Ècco  V  òro  :  ve  lo  do,  here's  the  gold  :  I  give  it  to  you. 

Ècco  la  palla  :  la  vedo,  here's  the  ball  :  I  see  it. 

Came  poteva  sapere  se  io  veniva  o  no  ?  —  Lo  ha  indovinato.  — 

"  How  could  he  tell  whether  I  was  coming  or  not?"     "  He 

guessed  it." 

(i)  It  will  be  seen  that  the  third  person  (not  reflexive) 
has  different  forms  for  the  direct  and  the  indirect  object. 

Ex.  :   Lo  trovai,  I  found  him  ;  gli  feci  un  regalo,  I  made  him  a 

present  ;  la  lascia,  he  leaves  her  ;  le  scrive,  he  writes  to  her. 

Li  cercate,  you  seek  them  (masc.)  ;  le  salutate,  you  greet  them 

(fern.)  ;   mandiamo  lóro  mille  saluti,  we  send  them  (masc. 

or  fern.)  a  thousand  greetings. 

(2)  The  reflexive  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  per- 
sons are  miy  ci  ;  tiy  vi.  All  plural  reflexive  pronouns  are 
used  also  as  reciprocal  pronouns.  A  verb  is  called  reflexive 
when  it  has  as  direct  ox  indirect  object  a  conjmictive  pronoun 
representing  the  same  person  as  its  subject. 

Ex.  :    Mi  defèndo,  I  defend  myself;  vi  lavate,  you  wash  yourselves. 
Si  fa  oìióre,  she  does  herself  credit  ;  si  odiano,  they  hate  each 
other  ;  ci  auiiàmo,  we  love  one  another. 

(3)  Another  conjunctive  pronoun  is  «^,*  "of  it,"  "of 
them"  ;  it  corresponds  also  to  "any,"  "some"  when  these 
words  mean  "any,  some  of  it,"  "any,  some  of  them."  It 
is  often  used  pleonastically  in  Italian. 

Ex.  :   Ne  pària,  he  speaks  of  it  ;  ne  ho,  I  have  some. 

Non  ne  abbiamo,  we  haven't  any  ;  ne  volete,  do  you  want  any  ? 
Tu  ne  approfitti  di  quésta  libertà,  you  make  good  use  of  this 
liberty. 

a.  Vi,  "you,"  and  ci  and  ne,  "us,"  are  not  distinguished  by 
form  nor  position  from  the  adverbs  vi,  ci,  meaning  "  there," 
"here,"  "to  it,"  "to  them,"t  and  the  adverb  ne,  "thence"  (see 

84)  :  *  as  ci  vado,  "  I  go  there  "  ;  vi  è  stato,  "  he  has  been  there." 

» . — —t 

*  Cf  French  en.  f  Cf.  French  y. 

^51837 


38  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

48,  The  conjunctive  pronouns,  except  lórOy  immediately 
precede  the  verb  :  as  mi  vedete^  "  you  see  me  "  ;  7io7i  lo 
capisco^  "I  don't  understand  him." 

But  when  the  verb  is  an  infinitive,*  a  positive  impera- 
tive,! 3-  present  participle,  or  a  past  participle  used  without 
an  auxiliary,  the  pronoun  follows  the  verb,  and  is  written 
as  one  word  with  it:  as  per  vedérlo^  "to  see  him";  di 
averlo  veduto y  "to  have  seen  him  "  ;  vedeteli,  "see  them  "  ; 
vedendoci y  "seeing  us";  avendoci  veduto,  "having  seen 
us";  vedtUotiy  "having  seen  thee."  The  addition  of  the 
pronoun  does  not  change  the  place  of  the  accent. 

Lóro  always  follows  the  verb,  but  is  never  united  to  it  : 
as  égli  dà  lóro  del  vino,  "  he  gives  them  some  wine  "  ;  par- 
late  lóro,  "speak  to  them."  J 

a.  When  an  infinitive  depends  immediately  (without  an  inter- 
vening preposition)  on  another  verb,  a  conjunctive  pronoun  be- 
longing to  the  infinitive  may  go  with  either  verb  :  as  posso  vedérti 
or  //  posso  vedére,  "  I  can  see  thee."  If  both  verbs  have  objects, 
the  main  verb  regularly  takes  all  conjunctive  pronouns  :  as  ve  lo 
sento  dire,  "I  hear  you  say  it."     See  55,  first  paragraph,  end. 

If,  however,  the  main  verb  is  impersonal,  it  cannot  take  the 
object  of  the  infinitive  :  as  bisógna  farlo,  "  it  is  necessary  to 
do  it."  If  the  main  verb  is/are,  lasciare,  se?ifire,  udire,  or  vedére, 
it  must  take  the  pronoun  :  as  la  fa  chiamare^  "  he  has  him  called." 
A  reflexive  pronoun  oftenest  goes  with  the  main  verb. 

If  the  main  verb  is  fàre^  and  the  dependent  infinitive  has  a 
direct  object,  the  object  of  fare,  if  it  has  one,  must  be  indirect  : 

*  Not  the  infinitive  used  —  with  a  negative  —  as  imperative  (see  72)  :  as 
non  lo  fare,  "do  not  do  it  "  (second  pers.  sing.). 

t  Not  the  negative  imperative,  nor  the  subjunctive  used  imperatively  (see 
77,  a):  as  iion  U  guardate,  "  do  not  look  at  them  "  ;  si  règoli,  "  let  him  mod- 
erate himself  "  (third  pers.  sing.  pres.  subj.). 

\  Students  should  follow  strictly  all  of  these  rules;  but  they  will  find  that 
the  first  is,  in  certain  cases,  not  always  observed  by  good  Italian  writers.  In 
literature  a  pronoun  often  follows  a  verb  that  begins  a  sentence. 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  39 

as  le  fa  avere  la  lèttera,  "  he  lets  her  have  the  letter  "  ;  fateli 
vedére  a  quel  signóre,  "  let  that  gentleman  see  them  "  ;  dovrei 
farglielo  accettare,  "  I  ought  to  make  him  accept  it."  This  con- 
struction is  generally  used  also  with  lasciare,  "to  let,"  and  often 
with  sentire  and  udire,  "  to  hear,"  and  vedére,  "  to  see."  Note  that 
the  main  verb  takes  all  conjunctive  pronouns. 

b.  When  a  conjunctive  pronoun  is  joined  to  an  infinitive,  that 
infinitive  drops  its  final  e\  if  it  ends  in  -rre,  it  drops  -re  :  as  farlo 
(fare),  "to  do  it"  ;  coiidunn  {condurre),  "  to  conduct  you." 

c.  The  final  vowel  of  mi,  ti,  si  is  often,  and  that  of  lo,  la  is 
nearly  always  ehded  before  a  verb  beginning  with  a  vowel  :  as 
/'  àjuo,  "  I  love  thee  "  ;  /'  ho  visto,  "  I've  seen  him." 

d.  All  conjunctive  pronouns  except  gli  and  glie  (see  50)  double 
their  initial  consonant  when  added  to  any  form  of  a  verb  that  ends 
in  an  accented  vowel:  as  dà?nmi  (imper.  da'  from  dare),  "give 
me  "  ;  dillo  (imper.  di'  from  dire),  "  say  it"  ;  parlerolle  (antique, 
for  le  parlerò),  "  I  shall  speak  to  her." 

e.  Pronouns  are  joined  to  the  interjection  ècco,  "  see  here," 
just  as  they  are  joined  to  the  imperative  of  a  verb  :  as  èccomiy 
"  here  I  am  "  ;  èccotelo  prónto,  "  here  it  is  ready  for  thee." 

49.  When  twc  conjunctive  pronouns  come  together,  the 
indirect  object  precedes  the  direct  :  as  mi  vi  presenta,  "he 
introduces  you  to  me";  non  vuol  pre sentàrvÌ77ii,  "he  will 
not  introduce  me  to  you";  gli  si  presentò  un  uòmo,  "a 
man  presented  himself  to  him."     See,  however,  55,  end. 

Lóro,  however,  always  comes  last  :  as  presentatela  lóro, 
"introduce  her  to  them." 

Ne  follows  all  forms  except  lóro  :  as  me  ne  dà,  "  he  gives 
me  some"  ;  datene  lóro,  "give  them  some." 

50.  Mi,  ti,  ci,  vi,  si  change  their  i  to  e  before  lo,  la,  li, 
le,  ne  (pronoun  or  adverb)  ;  and  if  the  two  words  follow  the 
verb,  they  are  joined  together  :  as  me  lo  dice,  "he  tells  me 


40  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

it"  ;  ve  ne  domando,  **I  ask  you  for  some"  ;  manddteceloy 
"send  it  to  us."*  Gli  and  le  ("to  her")  become  glie 
before  lo,  la,  li,  le,  ne,  and  unite  with  them  :  as  glieli 
ìndndo,  "I  send  them  to  him,  to  her";  voglio  darglielo, 
"  I  wish  to  give  it  to  him,  to  her." 

DISJUNCTIVE   FORMS. 

51.  These  forms  are  so  called  because  they  do  not 
necessarily  stand  next  to  the  verb. 

Disjunctive  pronouns  have  two  cases,  nominative  and 
objective.  The  objective  case  is  used  only  after  preposi- 
tions (for  exceptions,  see  51,  a,  b). 

The  disjunctive  forms  are  these  :  — 

Io,l;   me,  me.  ?"«,  thou;   /é-,  thee. 

Nói,  we;   nói,  us.  Vói,  you;  vói,  you. 

^  Égli,  lui,  esso,  he;   lui,  esso,  him. 
\  Élla,  lèi,  èssa,  she  ;   lèi,  èssa,  her. 

^  Èssi,  lóro  (eglino'),  they  (masc);   lóro,  èssi,  them  (masc). 
\Ésse,  lóro  (élleno'),  they  (fem.);   lóro,  èsse,  them  (fem.). 

"It"  must  be  rendered  by  a  masculine  or  feminine 
form,  according  to  the  gender  of  the  noun  it  represents. 
"  It  "  as  subject  of  an  impersonal  verb  is  regularly  not 
expressed  (see,  however,  51,  h). 

Ex.  :   La  cdsa  è  grandissima,  e  intórno  ad  èssa  e'  è  un  giardino,  the 
house  is  very  large,  and  around  it  there  is  a  garden. 
Non  è  véro,  it  isuH  true  ;  piòve,  it  rains. 

(i)  The  various  pronouns  of  the  third  person  are  used 
as  follows.  In  speaking  of  things  the  different  forms  oi 
esso  are  generally  employed.     In  speaking  of  persons  égli 

*  In  poetry  me  lo,  me  ne,  etc.,  often  become  mei,  men,  etc.  :  as  tei  dico. 
"I  tell  thee  so  ";   sen  tóma,  "he  returns  thence."  Non  lo  often  =  noi. 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  4I 

(or  esso),  élla  (or  éssci),  pi.  èssi,  èsse  are  used  for  the  nomi- 
native in  written  Italian,  but  in  the  spoken  language  they 
are  replaced  by  hii,  lèi,  lóro  ;  for  the  objective  lui,  lèi,  lóro 
are  used  both  in  conversation  and  in  writing.  Eglino  and 
élleno  are  antique  forms.     For  *'  he  who,"  etc.,  see  42,  b. 

Ex.  :    Quéste  còse  sono  vére  anch'  èsse,  these  things  are  true,  too. 
Ella  pària  con  lóro,  she  speaks  with  them. 
Lèi  è  gióvane  ma  lui  è  vècchio,  she  is  young,  but  he  is  old. 
Vennero  da  nói  anch  èssi,  they  came  to  us,  too. 

(2)  As  the  Italian  verb  denotes  by  its  endings  the  person 
and  number  of  its  subject,  the  personal  pronouns  of  the 
nominative  case  are  generally  omitted.  When  expressed 
(for  clearness,  emphasis,  or  euphony),  they  may  precede  or 
follow  the  verb  ;  in  dependent  clauses  they  nearly  always 
follow.  The  subject  of  an  interrogative  verb  usually  comes 
after  it,  as  in  English. 

Ex.  :   Parliamo  di  Mi,  we  speak  of  him  ;  no7t  vddo,  I  don't  go. 
6"'  io  fòssi  ricco  cÓ7ne  è  égli,  if  I  were  rich  as  he  is. 

(3)  The  disjunctive  reflexive  pronoun  is  sè^  which  is 
masculine  and  feminine,  singular  and  plural. 

Ex.  :    Lo  fecero  da  si,  they  did  it  by  themselves. 

a.  Use  the  objective  case  :  (i)  When  a  pronoun  of  the  third 
person  is  not  subject  of  an  expressed  verb  :  as  beato  lui,  "  happy 
he  !  "  tanto  i  genitóri  che  lui  sono  ricchi,  "  his  parents  as  well  as 
he  are  rich."  (2)  When  the  pronoun  stands  in  the  predicate 
after  the  verb  èssere  :  as  credendo  ch^  io  fòssi  te,  "  thinking  I 
was  you."  But  "it  is  I,"  etc.,  are  sono  io,  sèi  tu,  è  lui,  è  lèi, 
siamo  nói,  siete  vói,  sono  lóro.  (3)  In  the  cases  mentioned 
in  51,  b. 


42  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

b.  (i)  Clearness  or  emphasis  occasionally  requires  the  disjunc* 
tive  pronoun  instead  of  the  conjunctive  ;  in  this  case  the  conjunc- 
tive form  is  often  inserted  also. 

Ex.  :  Pdrlo  a  vói  signóre,  I  speak  \Q)  you^  sir. 
Mi  piace  anche  a  me,  it  pleases  me  too. 

(2)  The  disjunctive  form  must  always  be  used  when  the  verb 
has  two  direct  or  two  indirect  objects. 

Ex.  :   Vedo  lui  e  lèi,  I  see  him  and  her. 

Lo  do  a  7mo  pddre  e  a  le,  I  give  it  to  my  father  and  to  thee. 

c.  In  speaking  of  a  company,  a  class,  or  a  people  nói  altri,  vói 
altri  (which  are  also  written  as  one  word)  are  used  for  nói^  vói. 

Ex.  :  Nói  altri  italiani,  we  Italians. 
Vói  altri  pittóri,  you  painters. 

d.  "With  me,"  "with  thee,"  "with  himself,  herself,  them- 
selves "  are  either  con  me,  etc.,  or  mèco,  téco,  séco» 

e.  "  Myself,"  "  thyself,"  etc.,  used  for  emphasis  with  a  pronoun 
or  noun,  are  rendered  by  the  adjective  stésso. 

Ex.  :  Nói  stéssi  la  vedéfnmo,  we  saw  her  ourselves. 

/.    "  One  another,"  "  each  other  "  is  /'  un  V  altro. 
Ex.  :  a  amid^no  V  un  V altro,  we  love  one  another. 

g.  In  Florence  élla  is  often  shortened  into  la  (plural  le^,  which 
is  used  of  both  persons  and  things.     In  poetry  égli  becomes  éi. 

Ex.  :  La  non  viene,  she  doesn't  come. 

Pare  che  la  si  pòssa  tener  in  mdno,  it  looks  as  if  it  might  be 
held  in  the  hand. 

h.  In  impersonal  phrases  like  "it  is"  the  subject,  "it,"  is 
occasionally  expressed  in  Italian  ;  it  is  then  translated  égli^  which 
in  the  spoken  language  is  shortened  into  gli. 

Ex.  :  Gli  è  che,  it  is  because. 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  43 

52.  (i)  The  usual  form  of  address  in  Italy  is  Élla  *  (or 
élld)y  objective  Lei  (or  lei)  ;  in  conversation  Ella  is  replaced 
by  Lei  (or  lèi).  This  word  really  means  **  it,"  and  takes 
the  verb  in  the  third  person  ;  but  an  adjective  or  past  par- 
ticiple modifying  it  agrees  in  gender  with  the  person  it 
represents.  The  plural  of  Ella  is  Lóro  (or  lóro),  which 
takes  the  verb  in  the  third  person  plural. 

Ex.  :  Lèi  or  Ella  è  tedésco,  signóre,  you  are  German,  sir. 

Signorina  Néri,  Lèi  (or  Élla)  fu  lasciata  sóla.  Miss  Neri,  you 

were  left  alone. 
Sono  lièto  che  La  stia  bène  (see  51,  ^),  Pm  glad  you  are  well. 
E  Lóro,  dóve  vanno,  and  you,  where  are  you  going? 
Lóro  èrano  già  partiti,  you  were  already  gone. 
Signorine,  lóro  sono  mólto  studióse,  young  ladies,  you  are  very 
studious. 

Like  other  personal  pronouns,  Ella  and  Lóro  are  very 
often  omitted  in  the  nominative. 

Lèi  è  tròppo  gentile  or  l  tròppo  gentile,  you  are  too  kind. 
Cóme  stanno,  how  do  you  (pi.)  do? 

The  conjunctive  forms  of  Ella  are  La,  Le  (or  la,  le), 
those  of  Lóro  are  Li,  Le,  Lóro  (or  li,  le,  lóro)  ;  they  occupy 
the  same  positions  and  undergo  the  same  modifications  as 
the  corresponding  pronouns  of  the  third  person  (see  48, 
49,  50).    The  reflexive  pronoun  of  Ella  and  Lóro  is  si. 

Ex.  :  Le  prométto  di  visitarla,  I  promise  (you)  to  visit  you. 
Glielo  do,  I  give  it  to  you. 

La  prrègo  d''  accomodarsi,  I  beg  you  to  seat  yourself. 
Vidi  Lèi  e  il  babbo,  I  saw  you  and  your  father  (see  51,  b,  2). 
Dico  lóro,  I  tell  you  (pi.). 

*  Standing  for  Vòstra  Signoria,  " your  lordship "  or  "ladyship,"  or  some 
other  title  of  the  feminine  gender. 


44  ITALIAN     GRAMMAR. 

Le  cercava^  I  was  looking  for  you  (fem.  pi.). 
Si  divertono,  signorini,  are  you  enjoying  yourselves,  young 
gentlemen? 

The  possessive  of  Ella  is  Suo  (or  suo).    See  45. 
Ex.  :  La  Sea  gradita  lèttera,  your  welcome  letter. 

(2)  Vói  is  the  form  of  address  oftenest  found  in  books  ; 
it  is  used  sometimes  in  conversation  also,  but  only  toward 
inferiors  or  toward  equals  with  whom  one  is  on  familiar 
terms.*  It  is  employed  for  both  plural  and  singular 
(like  English  "you"),  although  its  verb  is  always  plural; 
an  adjective  or  participle  modifying  it  agrees  in  gender 
and  number  with  the  person  or  persons  it  represents. 

Ex.  :    Vói  qui,  Pietro,  You  here,  Peter? 

Vói  siete  diti  tutti  e  due,  you  are  tali,  both  of  you. 

(3)  In  speaking  to  an  intimate  friend,  a  near  relative,  a 
child,  or  an  animal  the  only  form  of  address  is  tu.  Tu  is 
used  also,  like  English  "thou,"  in  poetry  and  poetic  prose. 
The  plural  of  tu  is  vói. 

Ex.  :  Ti  chiamo  Enrico,  I  call  you  Henry. 
Dóve  sèi  tu,  where  art  thou? 
Voglio  vedérvi,  figliuòli  miei,  my  children,  I  wish  to  see  you. 

EXERCISE    11. 

Tant'  è^!  diceva^  tra  sé  un  giórno  Niccolino;  voglio^  vedére 
se  quégli  uccellini  son''  nàti.  Li  guardo^  solamente  e  riscéndo® 
sùbito.  —  E  Niccolino  s'  arrampica^  su  per  queir  àlbero,  tentando^ 
d'  arrivare  al  nido  per  levarsi  quella  curiosità.  Ma  sul  più  bèllo,® 
sente ^"  la  vóce  del  babbo  il  quale  èra"  lì  prèsso  nella  viòttola; 

*  Though  advocated  by  some  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers  of  Italian, 
the  use  of  vói  instead  of  Lei  and  Lóro  has  not  become  general.  In  Southern 
Italy,  however,  vói  is  the  form  popularly  used. 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  45 

vuole  ^  scénder  lèsto  per  non  farsi  cògliere  in  fallo,  ma  nella  fùria 
si  smarrisce,^'' gli  manca  ^"^  il  sostégno,  precipita ^^  a  tèrra,  e  caden- 
do ^^  si  fa  male  a^''  un  piede.  Il  dolóre  lo  fa^^  strillare  ;  alle  grida 
córrono ^^  il  babbo  e  la  mamma  che  lo  raccòlgono^  esclamando ^^  : 
—  Te  r  abbiamo  ^^  détto  le  cento  vòlte  che  a'  nidi  non  ti  dovevi^ 
voltar  nemméno  :  ècco  quel  che  succède^'*  ai  curiósi  e  a'  disub- 
bidiènti.—  E  sòrte  per  lui  che  lo  sentirono,^  perchè  così  poterono^ 
prónti  bagnargli  il  piede  coli*  acqua  frédda,  e  dòpo  averglielo 
tenuto  in  quell'  acqua  parécchio  tèmpo,  potéron^  fasciarglielo 
strétto  ;  in  quésto  mòdo  e  dòpo  qualche  giórno  di  ripòso  asso- 
luto, Niccolino  potè  ^  ricominciare  a  fare  qualche  passo  per  casa. 

1  I  don't  care,  2  gaid.  ^  I  want.  *  Are.  ^  I  will  look  at.  ®  Will  come 
down  again.  ''  Climbs.  ^  Trying.  ^  Sul  più  bello  =  at  the  criticai  mo- 
ment. 1°  He  hears.  ^^  Was.  ^^  pje  tries.  ^^  He  gets  confused,  i*  Fails. 
1^  He  tumbles.  ^^  Falling.  ^"^  Fa  male  a  =  \Q.  injures.  ^^  Makes,  i^  Run. 
20  Pick  up.  21  Exclaiming.  22  \Ye  have.  23  ^^^  dovevi  =  you  mustn't. 
24  Happens.    25  xhey  heard.    26  They  could.    27  Was  able. 

EXERCISE   12. 

[In  this  exercise    Carlino  and  GoRO  use  vói;   Armando  uses  vói  before 
GORO  enters,  Lèi  afterwards.] 

Carlino.    Sir,  we  are^  alone. 
Armando.   So  it  seems ^  {looking^  around). 
Carlino.   I  repeat*  to  you  that  we  are^  alone  {louder), 
Armando.    But  I  telP  you  that  I  admit-it.^ 
Carlino.    It  is  ''  time  to-raise  ^  the  mask  — 
Armando.    (Oh-my^  !  this-fellow^'' has"  recognized  me.) 
Carlino.   And  to^^  speak  plainly. 

Arenando.   That  is^  what  I  wanted^  to^^  do,  but  they  inter« 
rupted'^  me  all- the- time .^* 

Carlino.    Do^^  you  see^^  that  grove  over- there? 
Armando.    I  see^'^  it. 

Carlino.   There  nobody  will-interrupt^^  you. 
Armando.    Must^^  I  go  there  to  speak  {surprised)  ? 
Carlino.    We  shall-go^  together. 


46  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

Enter^^  GoRO  with  two  guns. 

Carlino.    {Takifig-^  o?ie  of- them)  Take-^  the  other. 

Armando.   Thanks,  I  am^^  not^'^a-^  hunter. 

Goro.   Take-^  it,  or-else^^  —  {bra?idishmg^  a  thick  club). 

Armando.  Willingly  —  to-^  satisfy  you  —  excuse-me,^  is^  it 
loaded  ? 

Carlino.  To-be-brief,^°  you  hate^^  me;  you  must^^  hate  me. 
I  hate^  you.  So''^  over-there  in  that  grove  —  at  eighty  paces 
from-each-other^  —  bang  !^     Either  you  kill^*^  me  or  I  kill^^  you. 

Armando.  But  I  have^  n't^''  these  sinister  intentions,  which- 
are^^  contrary  to  my  principles. 

Cai'lino.  In  that^^  case  you  will-permit^  this-man-to-amuse- 
himself-by-shaking'*"  the  dust  from  your^^  black  coat  with  that 
club.' 

Armando.  No,  indeed  ;  what-are-you-thinking-of '*^  ?  It  would- 
be  ^^  too  much-trouble^  !  {Goro  brandishes"^  the  club)  Be-easy^ 
with  the  club. 

Ca7'lino.   No?     Then ''^  Carolina  must "^  be  mine. 

Armando.   You're-welcome-to-her.^^ 

Carlino.  In  that^"  case  we  are  friends  ;  but  be-off  ^^  from^^  here, 
do-you-understand  ^^  ? 

Armando.    (What  dJ^  nice  way  they  have^  in  this  country  !) 

i  Sidino.  2  Pare.  ^  Guardando.  *  Ripeto.  ^  Dico.  «  ]Sle  convengo.  "^  È. 
8  To  {di)  raise  to  one's  self.  ...  ^  Ahi.  10  See  42,  2.  ^  Ha.  12  Volevo. 
13  Hanno  interrótto.  1*  Always,  i^  Qmit.  i^  Vedete.  ^^  Vedo,  i»  inter- 
romperà. 1^  Devo.  20  Andremo.  21  Prendendo.  22  Prendete.  23  Sono. 
2*  Non,  "  not,"  must  precede  the  verb.  25  ggg  \q^  a.  26  Altriménti. 
27  Agitando.  28  Per.  29  Scùsi.  30  AUe  córte,  ^i  Odiate.  32  Dovete. 
33  Òdio.  34  The  one  from  the  other.  35  prun.  36  Ammazzate.  37  ^^^. 
mazzo.  38  Uq^  39  Permetterete.  *''  That  this  man  amuses  {diverta)  him- 
self to  shake.  *i  See  45,  c.  *2  Seems-it  {pare)  to  you?  *3  Sarebbe. 
4*  Incòmodo.  ^^  Agita.  ^^  Stia  buòno.  ^^  Dùnque.  ^^  Deve.  ^9  Take 
impigli,  subj.)  her  then  {pure)  for-yourself.  ^^  Tal.  ^i  via.  ^2  pfi 
53  Intendeste.    5*  43,  ^.     ^5  /^rj^^^^^ 


AUXILIARY    VERBS. 


47 


AUXILIARY   VERBS. 

53.  The  irregular  verbs  essere,  ''to  be,"  and  avere,  "to 
have,"  are  the  ones  most  used  as  auxiliaries  in  Italian. 
They  are  conjugated  as  follows  :  — 

a.    Infinitives:     essere,  to  be;   essere  stdto,  to  have  been. 

Participles:  essendo,  heing;  essendo  stdto,  \iz.v'mgh&tn;  std^o,  been. 


Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

PRETERITE. 

FUTURE. 

Sano, 

Èra, 

Fui, 

Sarò, 

sèi, 

èri,     ' 

fosti. 

sardi. 

è, 

èra, 

>> 

sarà, 

siamo, 

eravamo. 

fummo.  ' 

saremo. 

siete; 

eravate. 

foste. 

sarete, 

sono. 

èrano. 

furono. 

sardnno. 

PERFECT.        PLUPERFECT.   PRETERITE  PERFECT.  FUTURE  PERFECT. 

Sono  stdto  {stdta),  Era  stdto  {stdta).  Fui  stdto  (stdta).  Sarò  stdto  {stdla), 
etc.  etc.  etc.  etc. 

iidjno  stdti  (stdte),  eravdmo  stdti{stdte),  fummo  stdti{stdte),  saremo  stdti{stdte\ 
etc.  etc.  etc.  etc. 


imperative. 

Subjunctive. 

ConditionaL 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

Sia, 

Fòssi, 

Sarei, 

Sit  or  sia, 

sia. 

fòssi, 

saresti. 

sia. 

fòsse. 

sarebbe. 

sidmo, 

sidmo. 

fossimo. 

saremmo^ 

state. 

sidte. 

foste. 

sareste. 

siano  or  sieno. 

fossero. 

sarebbero. 

PERFECT. 

PLUPERFECT. 

PERFECT. 

Sia  Stdto  (stdta). 

Fòssi  stdto  (stdta). 

Sarei  stdto  (stdta\ 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

48  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

b.   Infinitives:    avere,  to  hawe;  avere  avuto,  io  hzx e  hzia. 

Participles:  avendo,  hawing;   avendo  avuto,  haying  ha.d',  avuto,  had 


Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

PRETERITE. 

FUTURE. 

m. 

Aveva, 

Èbbi, 

Avrò, 

hai. 

avevi. 

avesti. 

avrai. 

ha. 

aveva. 

ebbe. 

avrà. 

abbiamo. 

avevamo, 

avemmo. 

avremo. 

avete. 

avevate. 

aveste. 

avrete. 

hanno. 

avevano. 

ebbero. 

avranno. 

PERFECT. 

PLUPERFECT. 

PRETERITE  PERFECT. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 

Ho  avuto. 

Aveva  avuto, 

Ebbi  avuto, 

Avrò  avuto, 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

[mperative. 

Subjunctive. 

Conditional 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

Abbia, 

Avessi, 

Avrei, 

Abbi, 

dbbi  or  abbia. 

avessi. 

avresti, 

abbia, 

avesse. 

avrebbe. 

abbiamo. 

abbiamo. 

avessimo. 

avremmo. 

abbiate. 

abbiate. 

aveste. 

avreste, 

abbiano. 

avessero. 

avrebbero. 

PERFECT. 

PLUPERFECT. 

PERFECT. 

Abbia  avuto. 

Avessi  avuto. 

Avrei  avuto. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

54.    (i)  The  auxiliary  of  the  passive  is  éssercy  "to  be." 
Ex.  :  Sono  amato,  I  am  loved. 

(2)  The  future  ("shall,"  "will")  and  the  conditional 
("should,"  "would")  are  formed  in  Itahan  without  any 
auxiliary. 

Ex,  :  Io  andrò  ed  égli  verrà,  I  shall  go,  and  he  will  come. 
Vorrei  vedérlo,  I  should  like  to  see  him. 


AUXILIARY    VERBS.  49 

(3)  The  auxiliary  of  the  perfect,  pluperfect,  preterite 
perfect,  and  future  perfect  tenses  is  avércy  "to  have,"  if 
the  verb  be  active  and  transitive.  If  the  verb  be  passive, 
reflexive,  or  reciprocal,  the  auxiliary  is  always  essere.  If 
the  verb  be  intransitive,  the  auxiliary  is  generally  essere, 
but  sometimes  avére.^     See  47,"  (2),  on  p.  37. 

Ex.  :   Ho  parlato,  I  have  spoken. 

Avevano  fatto  quéste  còse,  they  had  done  these  things. 
Mi  sono  fatto  male,  I  have  hurt  myself. 
Le  dònne  si  èrano  sbagliate,  the  women  had  made  a  mistake. 
Sarò  venuto,  I  shall  have  come  ;  e  nevicato,  it  has  snowed. 

a,  A  past  participle  used  with  the  auxiliary  èssere  must  agree 
with  its  subject  in  gender  and  number.  But  when  the  verb  has  a 
reflexive  pronoun  as  indirect  object,  and  some  other  word  as  direct 
object,  the  past  participle  may  agree  with  the  subject,  or  with  the 
direct  object,  or  remain  invariable. 

Ex.  :   La  ragazza  è  tornata,  the  girl  has  returned. 

Le  dònne  si  sono  disputate,  the  women  have  disputed. 
La  sorèlla  si  è  fatta  male,  our  sister  has  hurt  herself. 
Ci  sidìno  fatti  onore,  we  have  done  ourselves  credit. 
Ci  siamo  data  (or  dato)  paròla  d''  onore,  we  have  pledged  our 
word  of  honor= 

b.  A  past  participle  used  with  avere  may  or  may  not  agree  with 
its  direct  object,  according  to  the  choice  of  the  writer.  It  usually 
does  not  agree  when  the  object  follows  ;  and  it  nearly  always  does 
agree  when  the  object  is  a  personal  pronoun  preceding  the  verb. 

Ex.  :    La  birra  che  aveva  bevuto  (or  bevuta'),  the  beer  he  had  drunk. 
Ho  veduto  mólte  còse,  I  have  seen  many  things. 
Li  ho  trovati,  I  have  found  them. 

e.  "To  be,"  expressing  a  state  or  condition,  is  often  rendered 
by  stare  (92,  4),  instead  of  èssere.  Stare  per  or  èssere  per  (fol- 
lowed by  the  infinitive)  means  "  to  be  on  the  point  of." 

*  The  use  of  avere  with  intransitive  verbs  must  be  learned  by  practice. 


5P 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Ex.  :   Sto  bene,  Vm  well  ;  cóme  sta,  how  are  you? 
Stava  per  uscire,  I  was  just  going  out. 

d.  English  "am"  (or  "was")  -f-  the  present  participle,  when 
expressing  duration,  is  rendered  either  by  the  simple  present 
(or  imperfect)  or  by  the  same  tense  oi  stare  "^  +  the  present  parti- 
ciple ;  when  denoting  futurity,  it  is  translated  by  the  future  (or 
conditional),  sometimes  by  the  present  (or  imperfect). 

Ex.  :   Camminava,  he  was  walking;  state  lavorando,  you  are  working. 
Leggevano  or  stavano  leggendo,  they  were  reading. 
Medito  or  sto  fneditdndo,  I  am  meditating. 
Dice  che  verrà  (or  viene),  he  says  he  is  coming. 
Disse  che  verrebbe,  he  said  he  was  coming. 

e.  A  verb  with  the  auxiliary  "used  to"  (or  "would  "  =  "used 
to")  is  translated  either  by  the  simple  imperfect,  or  by  the  infini- 
tive with  solére,  "  to  be  accustomed  "  (92,  14). 

Ex.  :    Vi  andava  (or  soleva  andare)  ógni  séra,  he  used  to  go  there 
every  evening. 

/.  Venire,  "to  come"  (92,  166),  and  rimanére,  "to  remain" 
(92,  16),  are  sometimes  used  as  auxiliaries  in  the  simple  tenses 
of  the  passive,  instead  of  èssere.  Andare,  "to  go"  (92,  i),  is 
similarly  used,  but  always  implying  duty  or  obligation. 

Ex.  :  /  Iddri  vennero  arrestati,  the  thieves  were  arrested. 
Rimase  sorprésa,  she  was  surprised. 
II fucile  non  va  toccato,  the  gun  mustn't  be  touched. 

g.  The  English  auxiliary  "  do  "  is  not  expressed  in  Italian. 
Ex.  :   Non  viene,  he  does  not  come. 

h.  "To  have  a  thing  done  "  is  far  fare  una  còsa  (92,  2). 
Ex.  :   //  re  lo  fece  ammazzare,  the  king  had  him  killed. 

*  Andare  (92,  i)  and  venire  (92,  166)  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  stare. 


AUXILIARY    VERBS.  5  I 

55.  The  third  person  of  the  passive  is  very  often  re- 
placed  by  the  reflexive  construction  with  si  :  as  si  raccóttta, 
"  it  is  related  "  ;  quésto  libro  si  légge,  "this  book  is  read  "  ; 
la  spada  che  mi  si  diéde^  "the  sword  that  was  given  me  "  ; 
quelle  còse  si  facevano^  "those  things  were  done."  Many 
writers  always  make  the  verb  agree  with  its  subject  in 
number  ;  but  in  popular  speech  the  verb  is  nearly  always 
in  the  singular  when  its  subject  follows  (as  if  si  were  the 
subject  of  the  verb,  and  the  original  subject  were  the 
object)  :  as  si  vedono  (or  vede)  moltissime  còse,  "  many 
things  are  seen  "  ;  7ion  si  può  (or  possono)  leggere  quésti 
libri,  "these  books  can't  be  read."  Si  belonging  to  a  depend- 
ent infinitive  always  goes  with  the  main  verb  ;  see  48,  a. 

The  construction  with  si  is  generally  used  also  to  render 
the  English  indefinite  "  they  "  followed  by  a  verb  :  as  si 
dice,  "they  say."  In  this  sense  it  is  employed  with  neuter 
as  well  as  with  transitive  verbs  :  as  si  va  spésso,  "  people 
often  go."  See  also  63,  a.  In  this  construction  an  ob- 
ject pronoun  may  precede  si  :  as  lo  si  fa,  "it  is  done." 

56.  Following  are  synopses  of  the  compound  tenses  of 
transitive,  neuter,  reflexive,  and  passive  verbs.  In  the  para- 
digms given  henceforth  these  forms  will  be  omitted. 

a.  Following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  compound  tenses  of  trovare, 
"  to  find,"  and  venire,  "  to  come  "  :  — 

Avere  trovato,  to  have  found.  Essere  venuto,  to  have  come. 

Avendo  trovato,  having  found.  Essendo  venuto,  having  come. 

Ho  trovato,  I  have  found.  Sono  venuto,  I  have  come. 

Aveva  trovato,  I  had  found.  Era  venuto,  I  had  come. 

Ebbi  trovato,  I  had  found.  Eùi  venuto,  I  had  come. 

Avrò  trovato,  I  shall  have  found.  Sarò  venuto,  I  shall  have  come. 

Avrei  trovato,  I  should  have  found.  Sarei  venuto,  I  should  have  come. 

Abbia  trovato,  I  have  found.  Sia  venuto,  I  have  come. 

Avessi  trovato,  I  had  found.  Fòssi  venuto,  I  had  come. 


52 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


b.   Following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  compound  tenses  of  alzarsi 
("to  raise  one's  self"),  "to  get  up,"  and  andarsene*  "to  go 


away. 


Infinitive  perfect  :  Èssersi  alzato, 

Participle  perfect  :  Essendosi  alzato, 

Indicative  perfect  :  Mi  sono  alzato, 

PLUPERFECT  :  Mi  era  alzato, 

PRETERITE  PERFECT  :   Mi  fui  alzdto, 

FUTURE  PERFECT  :  Mi  Sarò  alzato. 

Conditional   perfect  :  Mi  sarei  alzato. 

Subjunctive  perfect  :  Mi  sia  alzdto, 

PLUPERFECT  :  Mi  fóssì  alzàto. 


Èssersene  andato. 
Essendosene  andato. 
Me  ne  sono  andato. 
Me  ne  era  andato. 
Me  ne  fui  andato. 
Me  ne  sarò  andato. 
Me  ne  sarei  andato. 
Me  ne  sia  andato. 
Me  ne  fòssi  andato. 


€.   Following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  entire  passive  of  amare,  "to 
love  "  :  — 


Infinitive  present: 

PERFECT  : 

Participle  present: 

PERFECT  : 

Indicative  present: 

PERFECT  : 
IMPERFECT  : 
PLUPERFECT  : 
PRETERITE  : 
PRETERITE  PERFECT  : 
FUTURE  : 
FUTURE  PERFECT: 

Conditional  : 

PERFECT  : 

Imperative  : 
Subjunctive  present: 

PERFECT  : 
IMPERFECT  : 
PLUPERFECT  : 


Èssere  amato,  to  be  loved. 

Essere  stato  amato,  to  have  been  loved. 

Essendo  amato,  being  loved. 

Essendo  stato  amato,  having  been  loved. 

Sono  amato,  I  am  loved. 

Sono  stato  amato,  I  have  been  loved. 

Èra  amato,  I  was  loved. 

Èra  stato  amato,  I  had  been  loved. 

Fui  avidto,  I  was  loved. 

Fui  stdto  amdto,  I  had  been  loved. 

Sarò  amdto,  I  shall  be  loved. 

Sarò  stdto  amdto,  I  shall  have  been  loved. 

Sarei  amdto,  I  should  be  loved. 

Sarei  stdto  amdto,  I  should  have  been  loved. 

Sii  amdto,  be  loved. 

Sia  amdto,  I  am  loved. 

Sia  stdto  amdto,  I  have  been  loved. 

Fòssi  amdto,  I  were  loved. 

Fòssi  stdto  amdto,  I  had  been  loved. 


*  Anddrsene  is  composed  of  the  verb  anddre,  "  to  go,"  the  reflexive  si,  and 
the  adverb  ne,  "thence"  (see  47,  «). 


AUXILIARY    VERBS.  53 

57.  "May,"  "might,"  "can,"  "could"  are  generally  ren- 
dered by  the  proper  tense  oi  potére ;*  "must,"  "ought," 
"shall"  =  "must,"  "should"  =  "ought,"  by  ^^z^/r^;*  "will" 
and  "would"  expressing  volition,  by  volére* 

Ex.  :    Può  èssere  véro,  it  may  be  true. 

No?t  poteva  parlare,  he  couldn't  speak. 

Deve  pagarlo,  he  must  pay  him,  he  shall  pay  him. 

Dovrèbbe  farlo,  he  ought  to  do  it,  he  should  do  it. 

Voglio  sapere,  I  will  know. 

Non  vorrei  andare,  I  wouldn't  go. 

No  preposition  intervenes  between  these  verbs  and  the 
dependent  infinitive. 

Ex.  :   Hdtmo  potuto  dormire,  they  have  been  able  to  sleep. 
Potremo  partire,  we  shall  be  able  to  start. 
Dové?n7no  venire,  we  had  to  come. 
Dovrete  trovarla,  you  will  have  to  find  her. 
Vorrà  tornare,  he  will  want  to  return. 
Vorrei  sapere,  I  should  like  to  know. 

These  verbs  are  not  defective,  like  the  English  modal 
auxiliaries  ;  hence  in  Italian  the  tense  is  expressed  by  the 
auxiliary  itself,  and  not  by  the  dependent  infinitive.  To 
find  the  proper  form  of  potére,  dovére,  or  volére,  replace 
"may,"  etc.,  by  the  correct  tense  of  "to  be  able"  ;  "must," 
etc.,  by  "to  be  obliged";  "will,"  etc.,  by  "to  want"  or  "to 
like  "  :  as  "  I  could  have  said  it  "  =  "  I  should  have  {avrei) 
been  able  {potuto)  to  say  it  {dirloy  —  avrei  potiìto  dirlo. 

Ex.  :   Avrebbe  dovuto  tacére,  he  ought  to  have  kept  still. 
Avremmo  voluto  restare,  we  would  have  stayed. 

*  See  92,  2i,  8,  19.  The  auxiliary  of  these  verbs  is  regularly  avere  ;  but 
some  writers  use  with  them  the  auxiliary  that  belongs  to  the  dependent  infini- 
tive :  as  hdnno  potuto  venire  or  sono  potuti  venire,  "  they  have  been  able  to 
come." 


54 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


a.  "  Must  "  is  also  expressed  by  the  impersonal  verb  bisognare, 
"to  be  necessary,"  followed  by  the  infinitive  or  by  che,  "that," 
with  the  subjunctive.     "To  have  to  "  is  avere  da. 

Ex.  :  Bisógna  fdr lo,  it  must  be  done. 

Bisógna  che  andiamo,  we  muS't  go. 

Ho  da  scrivere  lina  lèttera,  I  have  to  write  a  letter. 

b.  "To  be  able"  meaning  "to  know  how"  is  sapere  (see 
92,  6).  "  Not  to  be  able  to  help  "  doing  a  thing  is  non  poter  a 
meno  di  non  (with  infinitive)  or  non  poter  fare  a  meno  di  (with 
infinitive) . 

Ex.  :  Non  seppe  farlo,  he  couldn't  do  it. 

Sa  lèggere  e  scrivere,  he  can  read  and  write. 

Non  poti  a  meno  di  non  ridere,  he  couldn't  help  laughing. 

EXERCISE   13. 

Giorgétto  è  un  bambino  vispo,  vispo.  E  sollécito  ;  alle  sètte  è 
già  levato,  ed  è  già  andato  nel  giardino.  È  màggio,  e  il  giardino 
è  tutto  fiorito  ;  ròse,  gigli,  viòle  mandano  ^  un  odóre  soave.  Gior- 
gétto si  strùgge^  di  cògliere  i  fióri  ;  ma  la  mamma  non  vuole ^  :  la 
mamma  lo  ha  lasciato  andar  nel  giardino,  a  patto  che  non  co- 
gliesse'' i  fióri.  A  un  tratto  Giorgétto  véde^  una  ròsa  più  bèlla  di 
tutte  le  altre,  non  resiste^  più  al  desidèrio  di  pigliarla.  La  mam- 
ma non  lo  saprà,^  non  lo  può^  sapere,  —  dice^  fi-a  sé  Giorgétto; 
e  stènde^"  la  mano  al  cespùglio,  ed  è  per  còglierla.  Ma  che  è 
stato?  Ritira ^Mèsto  la  mano,  e  grida,^  e  piànge. ^^  La  ròsa  ha 
le  spine  :  il  suo  gambo  nascósto  tra  bellissime  fòglie  è  tutto  pièno 
di  spine  ;  e  le  spine  gli  hanno  bucato  tutta  la  mano.  La  mano  è 
sanguinósa  ;  e  Giorgétto  piànge,^^  e  la  mamma  óra  si  avvedrà"  che 
il  suo  bambino  è  disobbediènte. 

l  Send  forth.  ^  ig  dying.  ^  Is  willing.  *  He  should  pick.  ^  Sees.  ®  Re* 
sists.  '  Will  know.  ^  Can.  ^  Says,  i'^  Stretches  out.  ^^  He  draws 
back.    12  Screams.     13  Qies.     i*  Will  see. 


REGULAR    AND    IRREGULAR    VERBS.  55 

EXERCISE    14. 

Silvio  Pellico  was  ^  confined  in  prison  ;  and  there,  in  the  silence 
of  his^  dungeon,  he  found  ^  a  friend,  a  companion  —  a  spider.  Yes, 
a  spider  made''  his  web  in  a  corner  of  the  prison,  and  Silvio  did^ 
not-destroy-it^  j  on-the-contrary,^  he  used-to-throw^  him  crumbs'' 
of  bread,  and  little  byhttle  he  became-so-attached^°  to  that  spider, 
and  the  spider  to  him,  that  the  creature  used-to-come-down"  from 
his  web  and  go^^  to  find  Pelhco,^^  and  would-go^^  on  his^^  hand 
ind  take^^  food^  from  his"  fingers.  One  day  the  jailer  removed ^^ 
the  unhappy  Pellico.  The  prisoner  though t-of^"  his  spider,  and 
said^^:  "Now  that  I  am-going-away,^^  he  will-come-back^  per- 
haps, and  will-find ^^  the  prison  empty;  or  if  there-is^  somebody 
else  here,^  he  may^*  be  an  enemy  of  spiders,^  and  tear  down  that 
beautiful  web  and  crush  the  poor  beast." 

^  Preterite.  2  gee  45,  b.  ^  Trovò.  ^  Fece.  ^  See  54,  g.  ^  Not  to-him  it 
destroyed  {disfece).  "'  Anzi.  ^  Buttava  :  see  54,  e.  ^  Def.  art.  ^'^  Tdnto 
si  affezionò.  ^^  Si  moveva:  see  54,  e.  ^^  Andava,  i^  ggg  ^3^  g  14  ggg 
45,  c.       15  Prendeva.       i^  ^/^^/^  di  stanza.         1'^  Pensh  a.  18  Disse. 

1®  See  54,  d:  me  ne  vado.       20  Ritornerà.       ^i  Troverà.       22  yi  sarà. 
23  Omit.      24  Potrebbe  :   see  57. 


REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

58.  Italian  verbs  are  divided  into  four  conjugations, 
according  as  the  infinitive  ending  is  -are,  accented  -ere, 
unaccented  -ere  (or  -rrc),  or  -ire.  Regular  verbs  of  the 
second  and  third  conjugations  are,  however,  inflected 
just  alike. 

a.  The  final  e  of  the  infinitive  may  be  dropped  before  any  word 
except  one  beginning  with  s  impure.* 


*  Cf.  10,  b;  14,  b.     Italians  find  it  hard  to  pronounce  three  consecutive 
consonants  of  which  the  middle  one  is  s. 


56 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


THE    REGULAR    VERB. 

59,  Parlare,  "to  speak,"  will  serve  as  a  model  for  the 
first  conjugation.  All  compound  tenses  are  omitted  (see 
66):  — 

Infinitive  and  Participles. 

Parlare,         parlando,         parlato. 


Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

PRETERITE. 

FUTURE. 

Parlo, 

Parlava, 

Parlai, 

Parlerò, 

parli. 

parlavi, 

parlasti, 

parlerai, 

pària. 

parlava. 

parlò, 

parlerà. 

parliamo. 

parlavamo, 

parlammo, 

parleremo. 

parlate. 

parlavate, 

parlaste, 

parlerete. 

parlano. 

parlavano. 

parlarono. 

parleranno. 

Imperative. 

Subjunctive. 

Conditional 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

Parli, 

Parlassi, 

Parlerei, 

Pària, 

parli, 

parlassi. 

parleresti, 

parli, 

parlasse. 

parlerebbe, 

parliamo. 

parliamo. 

parlassimo. 

parleremmo, 

parlate. 

parliate. 

parlaste, 

parlereste. 

parlino. 

parlassero. 

parlerebbero. 

a.  Verbs  whose  infinitives  end  in  -care  or  -gare  insert  h  after 
the  fT  or  ^  in  ali  forms  where  those  letters  precede  e  or  i:  as  paghi 
{pagare),  "let  him  pay";  cercherò  {cercare'),  "I  shall  search." 
Verbs  in  -ciare  and  -giare  drop  the  /  before  e  or  /:  as  mangi 
{mangiare),  "thou  eatest";    comincerà'^  {cominciare),  "he  will 


*  Some  writers  retain  the  i  before  e  :  as  comincierà. 


REGULAR    VERBS. 


57 


begin."  But  all  other  verbs  in  -ia7'€  drop  the  /  only  before  another 
/  :  as  picchi  {picchiare) ^  "  let  him  strike  "  ;  pigli  {pigliare)^  "  thou 
takest  "  ;  but  picchierà,  piglierèi. 

b.  The  verbs  giocare^  rotare,  sonare  generally  change  o  of  the 
stem  into  uo  in  all  forms  where  that  vowel  is  accented  :  as  simii, 
"let  him  play";  giuocano,  "they  play."  Rinnovare  and  tonare 
may  make  the  same  change.  The  u  is  sometimes  used  throughout. 

60.  Verbs  of  the  second  and  third  conjugations  *  are 
inflected  like  crédere,  "to  believe":  — 

Infinitive  and  Participles. 

Credere,  credendo,  creduto. 


Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

PRETERITE. 

FUTURE. 

Crédo, 

Credeva, 

Credei 
{credetti). 

Crederò, 

crédi, 

credevi. 

credesti. 

crederai. 

créde. 

credeva, 

credè 

{credette). 

crederà. 

crediamo. 

credevamo. 

credemmo. 

crederemo. 

credete. 

credevate. 

credeste. 

crederete. 

crédono. 

credevano. 

crederono 
{credettero). 

crederanno. 

imperative. 

Subjunctive. 

Conditional 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

Créda, 

Credessi, 

Crederei, 

Crédi, 

créda. 

credessi. 

crederesti. 

créda. 

credesse. 

crederebbe. 

crediamo. 

crediamo. 

credessimo. 

crederemmo. 

credete. 

crediate. 

credeste. 

credereste. 

crédano. 

credessero. 

crederebbero. 

*  Most  grammars  and  dictionaries  class  these  two  together  as  the  "  second 
conjugation." 


58 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR, 


Bàttere,  competere,  convergere,  divergere,  lucere,  ìnéscere, 
miètere,  pàscere,  prùdere,  ripetere,  stridere,  tessere,  tèndere, 
and  their  compounds  do  not  have  in  the  preterite  the 
forms  in  parentheses. 

Verbs  in  -cere  and  -gere  insert  after  the  r  or  ^  an  i  before 
the  u  of  the  past  participle,  but  not  before  the  o  ox  a  oi 
the  singular  or  third  person  plural  of  the  present  indica- 
tive or  subjunctive:  as  méscere;  mésco,  mésci,  mésce,  me^ 
sciamo,  mescete,  méscono  ;  mésca,  etc.,  méscano  ;  mesciuto. 

61.  Most  verbs  of  the  fourth  conjugation*  are  inflected 
like  finire,  "  to  finish  "  :  — 


Infinitive  and  Participles. 

Finire,                     finendo. 

finito. 

Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT.                    PRETERITE. 

FUTURE. 

Finisco, 

Finiva,                       Finii, 

Finirò, 

finisci. 

finivi,                       finisti. 

finirai. 

finisce. 

finiva,                       finì. 

finirà. 

finiamo. 

finivamo,                  finimmo. 

finiremo. 

finite. 

finivate,                     finiste. 

finirete. 

finiscono. 

finivano.                   finirono. 

finiranno. 

Imperative 

ì.                        Subjunctive. 

PRESENT.                       IMPERFECT. 

Conditional. 

Finisca,                     Finissi, 

Finirei, 

Finisci, 

finisca,                      finissi. 

finiresti. 

finisca,                       finisse, 

finirebbe. 

finiamo. 

finiamo,                    finissimo. 

finiremmo. 

finite. 

finiate,  .                    finiste. 

finireste. 

finiscano.                  finissero. 

finirebbero. 

Though  inflected  like  finire  in  all  other 

parts,  dormire, 

fuggire,^  pentire,  sentire,  servire,  vestire 

are  always,  abor- 

*  Most  grammars  and  dictionaries  call  this  the  "  third  conjugation." 
t  Fuggire  inserts  no  extra  i  (see  last  sentence  of  60). 


REGULAR    VERBS.  59 

rive,  bollire,  and  verbs  in  -vertire  are  generally,  and  assor- 
birey  inghiottire,  meìitire,  nutrire,  tossire  are  often,  in  the 
present  indicative,  imperative,  and  subjunctive,  conjugated 
after  the  model  below.  Partire  and  sortire  are,  when  tran- 
sitive, inflected  like  finire,  when  intransitive,  like  sentire* 


Indicative. 

Imperative. 

Subjunctive. 

Sento, 

Senta, 

sentì, 

Senti, 

senta, 

sente, 

senta. 

sentidmoy 

sentiamo^ 

sentiamo. 

sentite. 

sentite. 

sentiate. 

sentono. 

sentano. 

62.  The  present  participle  of  all  verbs  is  invariable. 
Ex.  :   Stavamo  parlando,  we  were  speaking. 

63.  In  all  conjugations  a  form  of  the  first  person  singu- 
lar of  the  imperfect  indicative  ending  in  o  instead  of  a  is 
nearly  always  used  in  conversation,  and  occurs  often  in  the 
works  of  modern  authors  :  as  leggevo,  "  I  was  reading." 

a.  In  popular  speech  the  first  person  plural  of  all  tenses  is 
generally  replaced  by  the  third  person  singular  preceded  by  si  : 
nói  altri  si  créde,  ''we  believe";  7iói  si  èra  venuti,  "we  had 
come  "  ;  ci  si  decìse,  "  we  decided  (ourselves)." 

b.  Final  o  of  the  third  person  plural  is  frequently  omitted  :  as 
parlati  di  lui,  "  they  speak  of  him."  Forms  in  -anno  sometimes 
drop  -no  :  as  dirdn  tutto,  "  they  will  tell  everything." 

c.  The  imperfect  indicative  endings  -avdmo,  -avdte,  -evdmo, 
-evàte,  -ivamo,  -ivate  are  often  pronounced  -dvamo,  -dvate,  etc. 

d.  Occasionally,  especially  in  poetry,  -at-  is  omitted  from  the 
ending  of  the  past  participle  of  the  first  conjugation  :  destdto  = 
désto. 

*  Compounds  are  conjugated  like  their  simple  verbs. 


6o 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


THE   IRREGULAR   VERB. 

64.  Certain  parts  of  Italian  irregular  verbs  are  always 
regular  :  the  example  given  below  will  show  which  they 
are.     Essere  (see  53,  a)  is  an  exception  to  all  rules. 

65.  Many  irregular  verbs  that  belong  or  once  belonged 
to  the  third  conjugation  have  the  infinitive  contracted 
{fare  for  fdcere,  dire  for  dicere^  condurre  for  condùcere)  :  in 
this  case  the  future  and  conditional  are  formed  from  this 
contracted  infinitive  {/arò,  direi,  condurrebbe),  while  the 
present  participle,  the  imperfect  indicative  and  subjunctive, 
and  certain  persons  of  the  present  and  preterite  are  formed 
from  the  uncontracted  stem  {facendo,  diceva,  conduciamo), 

66.  Pórre  i^ox  póneré),  "to  put,"  a  verb  of  the  third 
conjugation,  will  serve  to  show  which  are  the  regular  and 
which  the  irregular  parts  of  irregular  verbs  :  the  forms 
printed  in  italics  are  regular  in  all  verbs  except  dare,  dire^ 
essere,  fare,  store  ;  those  in  Roman  type  may  be  irregular. 

Infinitive  and  Participles. 

Pórre,  ponendo,  pósto. 


Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

PRETERITE. 

FUTURE. 

Póngo, 

Poneva, 

Pósi, 

Porrò, 

póni. 

ponevi. 

ponesti,^ 

porrai. 

póne. 

poneva. 

póse, 

porrà. 

poniamo. 

ponevamo, 

ponemmo,^ 

porremo, 

ponete* 

ponevate. 

poneste,'^ 

porrete, 

póngono. 

ponevano. 

pósero. 

porranno. 

*  See  66,  4- 

t  See  66,  3- 

IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


6l 


Imperative 


Póni, 

poniamo, 
ponete. 


Subjunctive. 

Conditional. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

Pónga, 

Ponessi* 

Porrei, 

pónga, 

ponessi^ 

porresti, 

pónga, 

ponesse^ 

porrebbe. 

poniamo. 

ponessimo  ^ 

porremmo. 

poniate. 

poneste. 

porreste, 

póngano. 

ponessero. 

porrebbero. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  present  participle,  the  imperfect 
indicative  and  subjunctive,  and  certain  persons  of  th» 
present  and  preterite  indicative  are  always  regular. 

(i)  Dare  and  stare  have  in  the  future  and  conditional 
darò,  darei  ;  starò,  starei.  Otherwise  the  only  irregularity 
in  the  future  and  conditional  is  that  they  are  contracted  in 
many  verbs  even  when  the  infinitive  is  uncontracted  :  as 
vedére,  "to  see,"  vedrò  ;  venire,  "to  come,"  verrei. 

(2)  From  the  first  person  singular  of  the  preterite  the 
other  irregular  persons  can  be  constructed,  the  third  per- 
son singular  by  changing  the  ending  i  to  e,  the  third  per- 
son plural  by  adding  -ro  to  the  third  person  singular.f 

(3)  The  regular  persons  of  the  preterite  and  the  whole 
imperfect  subjunctive  are  slightly  irregular  in  dare  and 
stare,  which  substitute  e  for  a  in  those  forms  (^désti,  demmo, 
déste,  dessi  ;  stesti,  stemmo,  steste,  stéssi). 

(4)  Z>/?r  (for  dicere)  and  fare  (for  fàceré)  have  dite  and 
fate  in  the  second  person  plural  of  the  present  indicative. 

a.  Verbs  whose  stem  ends  in  /,  n,  or  r  often  drop  final  e  or  i 
in  the  singular  of  the  present  indicative  and  imperative  :  as  non 
vuol  andare,  "  he  will  not  go  "  ;  vien  qui,  "  come  here."  See  also 
63,  a,  b,  c. 


*  See  66,  3. 


t  This  rule  applies  only  to  irregular  preterites. 


62  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

b.  The  three  forms  of  the  imperative  are  exactly  like  the  cor- 
responding persons  of  the  present  indicative,  except  in  avere, 
sapere,  and  volére,  where  they  follow  the  subjunctive  {abbi,  abbia- 
mo, abbiate;  sappi,  sappiamo,  sappiate;  vàgli,  vogliamo,  vogliate), 
and  in  andare,  dare,  dire,  fare,  and  stare,  which  have  in  the  sin- 
gular va\  da',  di',  fa',  sta'. 

e.  The  third  person  plural  of  the  present  indicative  can  always 
be  constructed  from  the  first  person  singular,  from  which  can  be 
formed  also  the  whole  present  subjunctive  except  the  first  and 
second  persons  plural  :  these  come  from  the  first  person  plural  of 
the  present  indicative.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  andare,  avere, 
dare,  fare,  sapere,  and  stare,  which  have  in  the  third  person  plural 
of  the  present  indicative  vanno,  hanno,  danno,  fanno,  sanno, 
stanno  ;  while  avere,  dare,  sapere,  and  stare  have  in  the  present 
subjunctive  abbia,  dia,  sappia,  stia. 

67.  With  the  aid  of  the  above  notes  any  verb  except 
essere  can  be  constructed  from  the  infinitive,  the  partici- 
ples (the  present  participle  often  being  necessary  to  show 
the  uncontracted  form  of  the  infinitive),  the  present  indic- 
ative, and  the  first  person  singular  of  the  preterite  and 
future.    A  list  of  irregular  verbs  begins  on  page  ZZ. 

a.  In  general,  compound  verbs  not  differing  in  conjugation 
from  their  simple  verbs  will  be  omitted  from  this  list.  All  com- 
pounds of  dare  and  fare  are  accented  on  the  same  syllable  as  the 
simple  verbs  :  as  fa,  "  he  does  "  ;  disfà,  "  he  undoes." 

The  compounds  of  stare  demand  special  mention  :  ristare, 
soprastàre,  sottostare,  sovrastare  are  inflected  like  stare  {rista 
soprastetti,  sottostiano)  ;  distare  has  no  present  participle,  is  reg- 
ular in  the  present  of  all  moods  {disto,  etc.),  but  otherwise  is 
inflected  like  stare  {distetti,  etc.)  ;  constare,  contrastare,  instare, 
ostare,  prestare,  restare,  sostare  are  regular  throughout  {consta^ 
contrastano,  instài,  ostarono,  presterò,  rèsti,  sostassi). 


IRREGULAR    VERBS.  63 

68.  In  old  Italian  and  in  poetry  both  regular  and  irreg- 
ular verbs  differ  in  many  ways  from  the  normal  types  : 
some  of  the  commonest  variations  are  given  below. 

a.  In  the  first  and  third  persons  singular  and  the  third  person 
plural  of  the  imperfect  indicative  v  is  often  dropped,  but  never 
in  the  first  conjugation  :  voleva  =  volèa  (also  volta)  ;  finivaìio  = 
fintano.  Some  of  these  forms  are  not  uncommon  in  modern 
prose. 

à.  The  conditional  endings  -el,  -ebbe,  -ebbero  are  generally  re- 
placed in  poetry  by  -ia,  -ia,  -iano  :  crederei  =  crederla. 

e.  The  future  endings  -b,  -anno  are  sometimes  replaced  by 
-àggio  or  -dbbo,  -àggiono  or  -abbono  :  amerò  =  ameràggio  ;  ame- 
ranno =  ameràbbono. 

d.  In  the  third  person  plural  of  the  preterite  -no  or  -ono  is  often 
dropped  :  amàro?to  =  annero  or  arnàr  {dX^o  amórno,  amónno).  In 
the  third  person  singular  we  find  amdo,  credéo,  sentio. 

e.  Final  -ero  is  often  replaced  by  -ono  :  avrebbero  —  avrébbono. 

f.  In  the  first  person  plural  final  o  is  often  dropped,  and  then 
the  m  sometimes  becomes  n  :  andiamo  =  andiàm  or  andidn. 

g.  In  the  first  person  plural  of  the  present  indicative  -idmo  may 
be  replaced  by  -amo,  -émo,  or  -imo,  according  to  the  conjugation. 

h.  Final  -iano,  wherever  it  occurs  (also  -éano  in  the  imperfect), 
may  be  replaced  by  -ieno  or  -ièna  :  avevano  =  aviéno. 

i.  At  the  end  of  a  word  we  often  find  e  for  /,  sometimes  /  for  e  : 
pensi  =■  pènse  ;  as  co  lidie  =  as  e  olid  ti. 

j.  E  is  sometimes  added  to  a  word  ending  in  an  accented 
vowel  :  aìiiò  =  ambe. 

EXERCISE   15. 

Tanto  all'  andare  quanto  al  tornare  dàlia  scuòla,  Enrico  dà^ 
nòia  a  tutti  ;  picchia  i  bambini  più  piccini  di  lui,  tira  i  sassi  a 
qualche  pòvero  cane  che  se  ne  va^  tranquillamente  pel  suo  viàggio, 
rompe  le  piànte  del  giardino  che  dève^  traversare  per  andare  a 
scuòla  o  per  tornare  a  casa  ;  insómma  è  un  continuo  far  malanni. 


64  ITALIAN     GRAMMAR. 

Il  babbo  va^  a  lavorare  la  mattina  prèsto  ;  la  mamma  è  malata,  e 
quindi  non  lo  possono''  accompagnare.  L'  altra  mattina  però  gli 
segui  brutta.  Méntre  andava  a  scuòla,  vide^  avanti  a  sé  un  bam- 
bino piccino,  tutto  vestito  bène,  e  che  pareva  sólo  ;  Enrico,  sènza 
far  tanti  discórsi,  arriva  di  diètro,  gli  piglia  il  cappèllo  e  glielo 
butta  in  una  fónte  che  èra  lì  vicina.  Il  pòvero  bambino  si  métte 
a  piàngere,  e  Enrico  cominciò  a  scappare.  Ma  quésta  vòlta  aveva 
fatto  ^  male  i  suoi  cónti  :  il  bambino  non  èra  sólo,  lo  accom- 
pagnava un  bel  can  barbóne.  I  can  barbóni  hanno  tanto  inten- 
diménto, che  fanno  ^  altre  còse  ben  più  meraviglióse  che  andare 
ad  accompagnare  a  scuòla  un  bambino.  Il  barbóne  dùnque,  cóme 
vide''  il  suo  padroncino  assalito,  via  diètro  ad  Enrico  che  fuggiva; 
in  un  àttimo  lo  raggiùnse,''  e  agguantatagli  una  gamba,  lo  badava 
a  mòrdere^;  Enrico  urlava,  ma  il  cane  non  lo  lasciò  finché  un 
signóre,  che  aveva  visto  ^  tutta  la  scèna,  non  lo  minacciò  col  ba- 
stóne. Enrico  ebbe  stracciati  i  calzóni,  lacerata  la  carne  della 
gamba,  e  fu  pòi  punito  dal  maèstro  e  dai  genitóri  ;  ma  da  quel 
giórno  a  quésta  parte  non  dà^  più  nòia  a  nessuno,  avendo  vedute 
che  un  cane  stésso  gli  aveva  insegnato  cóme  fòsse  male  molestare 
gli  altri. 

i  From  dare,  92,  3.  2  Andare,  andarsene,  92,  i.  ^  Dovére,  92,  8.  *  Po- 
tére, 92,  21.  s  Vedére,  92,  io.  «  Fare,  92,  2.  ^  Raggiùngere,  92, 138. 
*  He  kept  biting  him. 

EXERCISE  16. 

Have  you  ever  observed  what^  happens  when  a  pot  of  water 
boils  at  the  fire?  The  steam  of  the  water  rises  like  so-much 
smoke,  and  remains  attached  to  the  lid  that  covers  the  pot  ;  when 
this  steam  has  begun  to  cool,  it  becomes^  water  once-more,'  and 
falls ^  down  again^  drop  by  drop.  In-like-manner*  it  happens 
with^  the  vapors  which  the  sun  and  the  heat  lift  from  the  earth. 
The  vapors  rise,  collect  themselves  on^  high  in  little  bubbles,  and 
thus  united  they  form  clouds.^  When  these  clouds  are  very-much^ 
charged  with*  moisture,  they  resolve  themselves  into  water;  and 


MOODS    AND   TENSES.  65 

the  water,  falling^  down  again ^  in  drops  where  the  wind  carries 
it,  forms  rain/  So^^  rain'  is-only^^  steam  turned-back-into ^ 
water.  The  cloud,  too,^  is-only"  a  quantity  of  steam  not- very" 
dense  and  not- very"  high^  in  the  air.  This  vapor,  by^^  remain- 
ing low,  prevents  us  sometimes  from-seeing ^'  objects'  even  at  a^^ 
small  distance  from  us. 

1  Quello  eke.  2  Xo  become  once  more  =  ritornare.  ^  To  fall  again  =  rica- 
scare. *  Medesimamente.  ^  Per.  ^  In.  "^  See  13,  b.  ^  Mólto.  ^  Di. 
10  Dùnque.  "  Non  è  altro  che.  12  Tornato.  13  />^/.  u  p(,co.  15  Sol- 
levato.   1^  Omit,     i''  Di  vedére. 


MOODS   AND   TENSES. 

69.  The  English  present  participle  used  as  subject, 
predicate  nominative,  or  direct  object  of  a  verb  must  be 
rendered  in  Italian  by  the  infinitive,  nearly  always  pre- 
ceded by  the  definite  article. 

Ex.  :   Mi  place  il  viaggiare,  I  like  travelling. 

Rifarsela  cògli  animali  è  da  sciòcchi,  taking  vengeance  on  ani- 
mals is  folly. 

La  nòstra  pritna  céra  fu  il  cercare  una  pensióne,  our  first 
care  was  hunting  up  a  boarding-house. 

Odio  lo  studiare,  I  hate  studying. 

70.  The  English  present  participle  preceded  by  a  prepo- 
sition is  translated  as  follov^s  :  (i)  If  the  preposition  is  a 
necessary  part  of  the  thought,  it  is  expressed  in  Italian, 
and  the  English  present  participle  is  rendered  by  the 
infinitive  with  the  definite  article.  This  article  is,  how- 
ever, omitted  (unless  it  would  be  used  in  English)  after 
the  prepositions  di,  **of";  dòpo  di,  "after";  invéce  di^ 
"instead  of";  prima  di,  ''before"  ;  sènza,  ''without." 


66  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

Ex.  :    Óltre  il  fare  scarabòcchi  scrive  mdle,  besides  making  blots 

he  writes  badly. 
Paridi  contra   il  trarre  ùtile  di  quella  disgràzia,  I   spoke 

against  utilizing  that  misfortune. 
//  vizio  di  fiandre,  the  habit  of  smoking. 
Ho  r  abitùdine  di  coricarmi  tdrdi,  I  am  in  the  habit  of  going 

to  bed  late. 
Invéce  di  dirmi  ttitto,  instead  of  telling  me  everything. 
Prima  di  morire,  before  dying. 
Parliamo  sènza  riflèttere,  we  speak  without  thinking. 

(2)  If  in  English  the  omission  of  the  preposition,  al- 
though it  made  the  construction  awkward,  would  not 
essentially  change  the  meaning,  the  phrase  is  rendered 
in  Italian  by  the  present  participle  without  any  preposition. 

Ex.  :   Studiando  si  ifnpdra,  (through)  studying  we  learn. 

Dovrei  corrispóndere  alla  sua  cortesia  ascoltandola,  I  ought  to 

acknowledge  her  courtesy  (by)  listening  to  her. 
Partendo  incontrò  un  amico,  (on)  going  away  he  met  a  friend. 
Copiando  noti  fa  erróri,  (in)  copying  he  makes  no  mistakes. 

(3)  "To  amuse  one's  self  by  .  .  ."  and  "to  weary  one's 
self  by  ...  "  are  divertirsi  a  .  .  .  and  affannarsi  a  .  .  .  with 
the  infinitive  :  as  si  diverte  a  tirar  sassi,  "  he  amuses  him> 
self  throwing  stones."  Some  other  verbs  often  take  this 
construction. 

71.   Following  are  some  other  rules  for  the  use  of  the 

infinitive  and  participles. 

a.  When  any  verb  is  used  as  an  auxiliary,  the  mood  and  tense 
are  expressed  in  that  verb,  and  not  in  the  dependent  infinitive 
(see  57). 

Ex.  :   Avrei  potuto  fdrlo,  I  could  have  done  it. 

b.  After  fare,  "  to  make  "  or  "  to  have  "  (=  "  to  cause  "),  sen- 
tire  and  udire,  "to  hear,"  and  vedére  "to  see,"  the  Italian  present 


MOODS    AND    TENSES.  6/ 

infinitive  is  used  to  render  an  English  past  participle.  After 
lasciare,  "  to  let,"  and  often  after  the  preposition  da  an  Italian 
active  infinitive  is  used  to  translate  a  passive  one  in  EngHsh. 

Ex.  :   Si  fa  capire,  he  makes  himself  understood. 

Farò  fdre  un  pàio  di  scarpe,  I  shall  have  a  pair  of  shoes 

made. 
n  ho  sentito  dire,  I  have  heard  it  said. 
Lo  vide  ammazzare,  he  saw  him  killed. 
Si  lascia  ingannare,  he  lets  himself  be  deceived. 
A^on  c"  è  niènte  da  fdre,  there  is  nothing  to  be  done. 

c.  The  Italian  past  participle  is  inflected  like  any  other  adjec- 
tive.- The  present  participle  is  invariable.  When  in  English  the 
present  participle  is  used  adjectively,  without  any  verbal  force 
whatsoever,  it  is  translated,  not  by  the  participle,  but  by  a  verbal 
adjective,  which  can  be  formed  from  almost  any  Italian  verb  by 
changing  the  infinitive  ending  into  -ante  for  the  first  conjugation, 
and  into  -ènte  for  the  others.  This  adjective  may  be  used  sub- 
stantively.   Some  writers  have  used  it  as  a  participle. 

Ex.  :    Quésti  vasi  sono  rótti,  these  vases  are  broken. 
La  dón7ta  sta  cucendo,  the  woman  is  sewing. 
Stavano  parlando,  they  were  speaking. 
Un  animale  parlante,  a  speaking  animal. 
Acqua  bollènte,  boiling  water  ;  due  amanti,  two  lovers. 

d.  A  whole  protasis  is  often  expressed  in  Italian  by  a  present 
participle,  or  by  an  infinitive  with  a. 

Ex.  :   Andandovi  lo  vedrebbe,  if  he  went  there,  he  would  see  it. 
A  bucarsi  esce  il  sàngue,  if  you  prick  yourself,  blood  comes. 

e.  Writers  sometimes  use,  instead  of  a  clause  in  indirect  dis- 
course, an  infinitive  followed  by  the  word  that  would  have  been 
subject  of  the  clause. 

Ex.  :   Disse  èssere  quésto  V  uòmo  che  cercavamo,  he  said  this  was  the 
man  we  were  looking  for. 


68  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

72.  In  negative  commands  the  infinitive  is  always  used 
instead  of  the  second  person  singular  of  the  imperative. 

Ex.  :  Trovalo,  find  it  ;  no7i  lo  trovare,  do  not  find  it. 

73.  When  an  action  is  represented  as  having  taken 
place  and  still  continuing,  the  English  uses  the  perfect 
or  pluperfect  tense,  the  Italian  the  present  or  imperfect. 

Ex.  :  Stùdio  V  italiano  da  òtto  mési,  I  have  studied  Italian  for  eight 
months. 

74.  In  subordinate  clauses  referring  to  the  future  and 
introduced  by  a  conjunction  of  time,  where  the  present  is 
often  used  in  English,  the  future  tense  must  be  employed 
in  Italian. 

Ex.  :  Quando  vi  andrò,  glielo  dirò,  when  I  go  there,  I'll  tell  him. 

a.  The  future  is  often  used,  without  any  idea  of  future  time,  to 
express  probability. 

Ex.  :  Sarà  uscito,  he  has  probably  gone  out. 

Avrà  mólto  denaro,  he  probably  has  a  great  deal  of  money. 

75.  The  difference  between  the  imperfect  and  the  pret- 
erite is  this  :  the  preterite  is  used  of  an  event  that  occurred 
at  a  definite  date  in  the  past,  the  imperfect  is  used  in  a 
description  or  in  speaking  of  an  accessory  circumstance  or 
an  habitual  action  in  past  time  —  the  preterite  is  a  narra- 
tive, the  imperfect  a  descriptive  tense.  The  preterite  per- 
fect is  used  (instead  of  the  pluperfect)  only  after  conjunc- 
tions meaning  "as  soon  as"  {appéna  che,  sùbito  che,  tòsto 
che),  and  sometimes  after  dòpo  che,  "after."* 

*  It  is  used  also  in  phrases  like  :  in  cinque  minuti  ebbe  finita  la  lèttera, 
•in  five  minutes  he  had  the  letter  finished." 


MOODS    AND    TENSES.  69 

£x.  :  Entrò  méntre  dormivamo,  he  came  in  while  we  slept. 
Facevo  COSI  ógni  mattina,  I  did  so  every  morning. 
Lo  fece  r  anno  scórso,  he  did  it  last  year. 
Tosto  che  V  ebbe  visto,  uscì,  as  soon  as  he  had  seen  it,  he  went 

a.  In  conversation  the  perfect  is  often  used  instead  of  the  pret- 
erite, when  the  event  is  not  remote. 

Ex.  :   Vi  sono  andato  ièri,  I  went  there  yesterday. 

76.  The  conditional,  like  the  English  "should"  and 
"would,"  has  two  uses  :  in  indirect  discourse  after  a  prin- 
cipal verb  in  a  past  tense  it  expresses  the  tense  which  in 
direct  discourse  would  be  future  ;  *  in  the  conclusion  of  a 
conditional  sentence  it  is  used  when  the  protasis  is  (or,  if 
expressed,  would  be)  in  the  imperfect  subjunctive  (see  77). 

Ex.  :  Disse  che  lo  farebbe,  he  said  he  would  do  it. 

Se  fòsse  véro  lo  crederei,  if  it  were  true,  I  should  believe  it. 
Quésta  casa  mi  converrebbe,  this  house  would  suit  me. 

77.  When  a  condition  is  contrary  to  fact,  or  consists  of 
a  more  or  less  unlikely  supposition  referring  to  future 
time,t  the  protasis  is  in  the  imperfect  (or  pluperfect)  sub- 
junctive, the  apodosis  in  the  conditional  \\  otherwise  both 
protasis  and  apodosis  are  in  the  indicative. 

Ex.  :  Se  V  avessi  te  lo  darei,  if  I  had  it,  I  should  give  it  thee. 

Se  fosse  tomato  V  avrei  veduto,  if  he  had  returned,  I  should 

have  seen  him. 
Se  venisse  7iói  ce  ne  andrém?no,  if  he  carne,  we  should  go. 
Se  vi  andassi  morrei,  if  I  should  go  there,  I  should  die. 

*  The  perfect  of  the  future  or  the  conditional  is  sometimes  used  where  the 
simple  tense  would  be  expected  :  disse  che  non  V  avrebbe  fatto  più,  "  he  said 
he  would  do  it  no  more." 

t  Rendered  in  English  by  the  imperfect,  or  by  the  auxiliary  "should." 
X  The  imperfect  indicative  is  occasionally  used  to  replace  the  imperfect  or 
pluperfect  subjunctive  of  the  protasis  and  the  conditional  of  the  apodosis. 


70  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

Se  non  è  véro  è  ben  trovato^  if  it  isn't  true,  it's  a  good  invention. 
6"^  lo  fece  sarà  punito^  if  he  did  it,  he  will  be  punished. 

a.  The  missing  persons  of  the  imperative  are  supplied  from 
the  present  subjunctive.  The  imperfect  subjunctive  is  used  to 
express  a  wish  that  is  not  hkely  to  be  reahzed. 

Ex.  :    Si  accomodi,  be  seated  (sing.)  ;  stiano  zitti,  be  quiet  (plur.). 
Sia  pure,  be  it  so  ;  vengano  sùbito,  let  them  come  at  once. 
Fosse  pure,  would  it  were  so  ! 

b.  When  a  relative  clause  restricts  its  antecedent  to  one  of  all 
its  possible  conditions  or  actions,  the  verb  of  that  relative  clause 
is  in  the  subjunctive,  —  the  present  subjunctive  if  the  verb  on 
which  it  depends  be  present  or  future,  the  imperfect  if  it  be  past 
or  conditional. 

Ex.  :  Non  à  è  animale  più  bellino  (V  un  gatto  gióvane  che  fàccia  il 

chiasso,  there  is  no  animal  prettier  than  a  kitten  that  is  at  play. 

Dóve  troverete  un  gioviate  che  spòsi  vói,  where  will  you  find  a 

young  man  who  will  marry  you  ? 
Vorrei  vedére  un  bel  quadro  che  non  fòsse  antico,  I  should  like 
to  see  a  fine  picture  that  is  not  old. 

c.  The  verb  of  a  subordinate  clause  depending  on  an  imper- 
sonal verb,  on  a  superlative,  or  on  one  of  the  words  "first,"  "  last," 
and  "only"  is  in  the  subjunctive.  This  rule  does  not  apply  to 
reflexive  verbs,  nor  to  affirmative  phrases  meaning  "  it  is  true  "  or 
"it  is  because." 

Ex.  :   Bisognò  cW  io  vi  andassi,  I  had  to  go  there. 

E  giusto  che  siano  puniti,  it's  right  they  should  be  punished. 

//  più  bèllo  eh''  io  conósca,  the  finest  that  I  know. 

Si  vede  che  7ion  è  così,  you  see  it  isn't  so. 

È  véro  che  ci  sono  stato,  it's  true  that  I've  been  there. 

d.  The  subjunctive  is  used  after  all  conjunctions  meaning  "al- 
though," "as  if,"  "unless,"  "provided  that,"  "in  order  that,"  "in 
such  a  way  that"  (denoting  purpose),  "before,"  "until"  (refer- 
ring to  future),  "whenever,"  "wherever,"  "without." 


MOODS    AND    TENSES.  7I 

Ex.  :  Benché  stia  nascósto,  lo  troverò,  dovi'mque  sia,  although  he  be 

hidden,  I  shall  find  him,  wherever  he  is. 
Partirò   a   meno  che  égli  non  venga,   I    shall   go   unless    he 

comes. 
Lo  fece  perche  io  venissi,  he  did  it  that  I  might  come. 
La  divise  in  mòdo  che  le  due  parti  fossero  ngudli,  he  divided  it 

in  such  a  way  that  the  two  parts  should  be  equal. 
Aspetta  finche  io  tórni,  wait  until  I  return. 

e.  The  subjunctive  is  used  after  the  indefinite  words  and 
phrases  quale  che,  qualùnque,  chiunque,  checche,  per  quanto. 

Ex.  :   Chiunque  venga,  whoever  comes. 

Qualùnque  disgràzia  che  succèda,  whatever  misfortune  happens. 
Per  qimnte  volte  ci  vada,  however  many  times  I  go  there. 
Per  quanto  ricco  égli  sia,  however  rich  he  may  be. 

/.  The  verb  of  an  indirect  question  is  nearly  always  in  the 
subjunctive  when  it  depends  on  a  main  verb  either  in  a  past  tense 
or  in  the  conditional. 

Ex.  :  Do7ndndano  se  il  re  e  mòrto,  they  ask  whether  the  king  is 
dead. 
Domandò  se  il  padre  fòsse  liscilo,  he  asked  whether  his  father 
was  out. 

g.  In  a  clause  dependent  on  a  verb  of  saying  the  subjunctive 
is  used  if  the  main  verb  is  negative,  or  interrogative,  or  in  the 
conditional,  or  in  a  past  tense.  It  is  generally  not  used,  however, 
after  an  affirmative  verb  in  a  past  tense  when  the  author  himself 
ivishes  to  imply  that  the  indirect  statement  is  true. 

Ex.  :  Dice  che  la  còsa  è  chiarissima,  he  says  the  thing  is  perfectly 

clear. 
Non  dico  che  quésto  sia  véro,  I  don't  say  this  is  true. 
Dissero   che  lo    zio  fòsse   ammalato,    they   said    their   uncle 

was  ill. 
Gli  dissi  che  mi  chiamava  Enrico,  I  told  him  my  name  was 

Henry. 


72  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

A.  The  subjunctive  is  used  after  verbs  expressing  causation, 
concession,  desire,  emotion,  prevention,  and  uncertainty  :  i.e.,  after 
verbs  of  bringing  about  ;  granting,  permitting  ;  commanding,  hop- 
ing, requesting,  wishing  ;  fearing,  regretting,  rejoicing  ;  forbidding, 
hindering  ;  being  ignorant,  denying,  disbelieving,  doubting,  expect- 
ing, pretending,  supposing,  suspecting,  thinking.  But  sperare,  "  to 
hope,"  very  often  does  not  take  the  subjunctive. 

Ex.  :   Non  so  chi  siano,  I  don't  know  who  they  are. 

Vorrei  che  non  fòsse  accaduto,  I  wish  it  had  not  happened. 
Supponiamo  che  sia  provato,  let  us  suppose  that  it  is  proved. 
Spero  che  verrà,  I  hope  he  will  come. 

/.  Se,  "if,"  is  occasionally  omitted  before  an  imperfect  subjunc- 
tive ;  in  this  case  the  subject,  if  expressed,  must  follow  the  verb. 

Ex.  :  Sarei  felice  venisse  égli,  I  should  be  happy,  should  he  come. 

EXERCISE  17. 

La  mamma  di  Alfredo  aveva  lasciato  un  anello  d'  òro  sul  cas- 
settóne. Alfredo  volle  ^  métterselo  in  dito.  Che  giudizio  !  pre- 
tèndere che  r  anello  della  mamma  pòssa ^  stare  in  un  ditino  d'  un 
fanciullo  !  Se  lo  mise  ^  nel  dito  gròsso  e  pòi  s'  affacciò  alla  finè- 
stra; l'anello  cascò  di  sótto,  e  non  se  ne  seppe*  più  nulla.  La 
mamma  cérca  1'  anello,  ma  non  e'  èra  più  ;  cérca  di  qui,  di  là,  dì 
sópra,  cérca  per  tutto,  né  1'  anello  si  può^  trovare.  Allóra  chiama 
Alfredo  e  gli  dice^  :  —  Bambino,  dimmi  ^  la  verità  ;  hai  prèso  ^  tu  il 
mio  anello?  1'  hai  pèrso ^  tu?  —  Alfredo,  cattivo,  disse ^  di  no.  La 
mamma  si  ricordava  bène  d'  averlo  lasciato  nel  vassoino  sul  cas- 
settóne. Non  credeva  Alfredo  capace  di  dir  le  bugie,  quindi  so- 
spettò che  qualcuno  T  avesse  rubato.  Ci  andava  in  càsa^  una 
bambina,  figliuola  d'  un  antico  suo  servitóre,  e  il  sospètto  cadde  ^'' 
sópra  quésta  pòvera  creatura.  La  mamma  di  Alfredo  non  la 
volle  ^  più  in  casa  ;  ma  1'  allontanò  con  bèlla  manièra,  e  nessuno 
si   avvide"  di  nulla,  perchè  quella  signóra  èra  buòna.     Però  ia 


MOODS    AND    TENSES.  73 

bugia  di  Alfredo  féce^  si  che  sua  madre  credesse  ladra  quella 
pòvera  bambina.  Dio  perdóni  Alfredo,  Dio  gì'  ispiri  di  rimediare 
a  si  brutta  azióne  ;  vàda/^  si  butti  ài  piedi  della  mamma,  le  rac- 
cónti tutto,  e  non  commétta  mài  più  di  quéste  azionàcce. 

1  From  volére,  92,  19.  2  Potére,  92,  21.  ^  Méttere,  92,  73.  *  Sapere, 
92,  6.  5  Dire,  92,  164.  ^  ^^y^..  gee  48,  d.  ^  Prèndere,  92,  87. 
8  Pèrdere,  92,  83.  ^  There  used  to  come  to  the  house.  ^^  Cadére, 
92,  7.      11  Avvedérsi,  92,  io.       12  ^r^^^^  92,  2.       13  ^«^^r^,  92,  i. 

EXERCISE   18. 

We  inhabit  the  earth  ;  but  not  all  the  earth  has  the  same  name 
everywhere:  the  earth  is-dividedMnto  five  parts, -and  every  part 
has  its  name.  The  five  parts  of  the  earth  are-called^  :  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  America,  Oceanica.  Imagine  you-cut-open^  the  earth 
in  the  middle  and  place  ^  it  on  a  table,  in-such-a-way''  that  the 
inside  shall-rest^  on  the  table,  and  the  outside  shall-present'  itself 
to  your  eyes.  You  will  have  two  circles  :  in  the  circle  that  lies^ 
at  your  right  are^  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  a  part  of  Oceanica; 
in  the  circle  that  Hes^  on-the^  left  are''  America  and  the  other 
part  of  Oceanica.  But  the  ancients  did^  not^*^  beheve  that  the 
earth  was  round,  nor  did^  they  know  that  its  parts  were  five. 
They  thought  that  the  earth  was  flat  and  surrounded  by  the 
sea;  they  knew,  moreover,^^  only^  three  parts:  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa.  They  never  ^^  would  have  dreamed  that  the  earth  was 
round,  and  that  on^*  the  side  opposite  to  the-one^^  which  they 
inhabited  there  ^^  was  inhabited  land.  America  was  discovered  395 
years  ago  by  an  Italian  who  was-called^  Christopher  Columbus. 
Christopher  Columbus  was-bom^^  in  a  village  near  Genoa  in  1447. 
His  parents  were  poor  ;  his  father  earned  hardly  enough-to  "  sup- 
port the  family.  However,  by-dint  ^^  of  sacrifices  they  had^^  him 
study;  and  as^  Christopher  studied  willingly,  he  grew  up  a  fine^^ 
boy.  When  it  was  time  ^^  to-choose  ^  a  profession,  he  chose  to- 
be-a^  sailor.     In^  those  times  they  beUeved  that  the  world  ended 


74 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


after  Africa  ;  but  Columbus,  on-the-contrary,^  persuaded  himself 
that  the  world  ought  ^^  not^^  to^*^  end  there,  and  that  by  continuing 
to  sail,  one^  ought -^  to^^  turn  and  come-back  to  the  same  point. 

1  See  55.  ^  dì  aprire.  ^  Di  posare.  *  In  mòdo.  ^  See  77,  d.  ^  u^g 
restare.  "^  C  è.  ^  A.  ^  See  54,^.  1°  Non,  "not,"  must  precede  the 
verb.  11  Pòi.  12  See  82.  13  See  83.  i*  £,a.  15  Quella.  16  yi^ 
17  To  be  horn=  nàscere,  92,  77.  18  A  fòrza.  19  Use  fare,  92,  2. 
20  Perchè.  21  ^r^z/o.  22  Use  def.  article.  23  j)i  scégliere.  ^  Di  fare 
il.      25  Invéce.      26  See  57. 


CONJUNCTIONS,   PREPOSITIONS,   AND   AD- 
VERBS. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


78.    The  principal  conjunctions  are  : 


After,  dòpo  che. 

Also,  anche,  pure. 

Although,  benché,  sebbene,  non  ostante 

che. 
And,  e. 

As,  cóme,  quanto  (after  tanto'). 
As  (=  since),  siccóme,  poiché. 
As  fast  as,  via  via  che. 
As  if,  còme  se,  quasi. 
As  long  as,  finché. 
As  well  as,  cóme  anco. 
Because,  perché. 
Before,  prima  che,  avanti  che. 
Both  .  .  .  and,  e  ...  e. 
But,  ma. 

Either  ...  or,  0  .  .  .  0. 
Even  if,  anche  se,  ancorché. 
Except  that,  se  non  che. 
For,  che. 


Granting  that,  dato  che. 

However  (=  nevertheless),  però,  pure. 

However  (before  an  adj.),  qualùnque^ 

per  quanto. 
If,  se  (occasionally  quando,  óve'). 
In  case,  cdso. 

In  order  that,  perché,  accioché,  affinché. 
Much  less,  non  che. 
Neither  .  .  .  nor,  né  .  .  .  né. 
Nevertheless,  tuttavia,  nondiméno,  però. 
Nor,  né,  nemméno,  neppure. 
Nor  .  .  .  either,  nemméno,  neppure. 
Nor  even,  neanche,  neppure. 
Not  to  say  .  . .  but  even,  non  che . . .  mm^. 
Or,  0,  ovvéro,  ossia. 
Or  else,  ossia. 
Provided  that,  purché. 
Rather,  anzi. 
Since  (temporal),  dacché. 


CON7UNCTIONS.  75 

Since  {cz\x?,2X)y  poiché,  siccóme.  Too,  pure,  dnche. 

So,  dùnque,  adùnqtte.  Unless,  a  meno  che  non,  eccetto  chi 

So  that  (result),  di  mòdo  che,  sicché.  non,  senza  che. 

So  that  {=  in  order  Ùì-ò.'C),  perchè.  Until,  finché  non. 

Than,  che.  When,  quando. 

That,  che.  Whence,  dónde. 

That  (=  in  order  that),  perchè.  Where,  dóve,  óve,  là  dóve. 

Then,  dùnque.  Wherever,  dovunque. 

Therefore,  dùnque,  però,  perciò,  adunque     Whether,  se. 

(at  the  beginning  of  a  clause).  While,  méntre,  méntre  che. 

The  final  vowel  of  dnche^  che,  dóve,  neppure,  and  óve  is 
generally  elided  before  e  or  i. 

a.  Of  the  above  conjunctions  accioche,  affinchè,  a  meno  che  non, 
ancorché,  avanti  che,  benché,  caso,  cóme  se,  dato  che,  dovunque, 
eccètto  che  non,  non  ostante  che,  perchè  meaning  "in  order  that," 
per  quanto,  prima  che,  purché,  qualùnque,  quasi,  sebbène,  and  sènza 
che  are  followed  by  the  subjunctive.  For  the  use  of  che,  "  that," 
with  the  subjunctive,  see  77,  c,g,  h.  Cóme  is  occasionally  used 
for  cóme  se,  and  then  it  takes  the  subjunctive.  Finché  when  refer- 
ring to  the  future  sometimes  has  the  sense  of  finché  non,  and  then 
it  generally  takes  the  subjunctive.  Se  is  followed  by  the  subjunc- 
tive when  it  introduces  an  indirect  question  or  statement  depend- 
ent on  a  verb  in  a  past  tense,  or  a  condition  contrary  to  fact. 
Quando  and  óve,  meaning  "  if,"  frequently  take  the  subjunctive 
when  se  would  not.  — For  examples,  see  77,  c,  d,f,  g,  h. 

b.  Che  cannot  be  omitted  in  ItaHan  as  "  that  "is  in  English  :  * 
as  disse  che  fòsse  véro,  "  he  said  it  was  true."  Se  can  be  omitted 
before  an  imperfect  subjunctive  :  see  77,  i. 


*  It  is  omitted,  however,  in  the  following  peculiarly  Italian  construction  : 
il  ragazzo  pareva  fòsse  felice,  "the  boy  seemed  to  be  happy";  that  is,  be- 
tween a  verb  of  seeming  and  the  subjunctive  dependent  on  it,  when  in  Eng- 
lish the  construction  would  be  a  verb  of  seeming  with  a  dependent  infinitive. 
It  is  occasionally  omitted  also  after  verbs  of  wishing,  hoping,  and  fearing  :  as 
ipero  mi  scriva  presto,  "  I  hope  you  will  write  to  me  soon." 


76 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


c.  E  and  o  are  often  written  ed  and  od  before  a  vowel. 
Ex.  :  Mio  padre  ed  io,  my  father  and  I. 

d.  Between  a  verb  of  motion  and  an  infinitive  "  and  "  is  ren- 
dered by  the  preposition  a. 

Ex.  :  Andrò  a  cercarlo,  V\\  go  and  look  for  it. 

e.  When  anche,  "  also  "  or  "  too/'  relates  to  a  personal  pronoun, 
the  disjunctive  form  of  that  pronoun  must  follow  anche,  even  if 
some  form  of  the  same  pronoun  has  already  been  expressed. 

Ex.  :  Andremo  anche  nói,  we  shall  go  too. 
Parte  anch''  égli,  he  goes  away  too. 
Trovai  anche  lui,  I  found  him  too. 
Vennero  anch''  èssi,  they  came  too. 
Lo  or  7ne  lo  diede  anche  a  me,  he  gave  it  to  me  too. 
Ti  piace  anche  a  te,  you  like  it  too. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


79.   The  principal  prepositions  are  :  — 


About  (=  approximately),  circa. 
About  (=  around),  intórno  a,  at- 
tórno a. 
Above,  sópra. 
According  to,  secóndo. 
After,  dòpo,  dòpo  di. 
Against,  contra,  cóntro. 
Along,  lungo. 
Among,  fra,  tra. 
Around,  intórno  a,  attórno  a. 
As  far  2S,fino  a,  sino  a. 
As  for,  per,  quanto  a,  in  quanto  a. 
As  to,  rispètto  a. 
At,  a. 

Because  of,  per  motivo  di. 
Before  (time),  prima  di,  innanzi. 


Before  (place),  davanti  a,  innanzi. 

Behind,  diètro. 

Below,  sótto. 

Beside  (place),  accanto  a. 

Besides,  beside  (=in  addition  to)^ 

óltre. 
Between,  fra,  tra. 
Beyond,  óltre,  al  di  là  di. 
By,  da,  accanto  a  (=  beside). 
By  means  of,  per  mèzzo  di. 
During,  durante. 
Except,  tranne,  eccètto,  fuòri  di. 
For,  per. 
From,  da,  fin  da. 
In,  in. 
In  front  of,  davanti  a.  innanzi. 


PREPOSITIONS.  T} 

Inside  of,  déntro  di.  Round  and  round,  tòmo  tórno  a. 

Instead  of,  invéce  di.  Since,  da. 

In  the  midst  of,  in  mézzo  a.  To,  a- 

Into,  in.  Toward,  verso. 

Near,  vicino  a.  Through,  per. 

Of,  di.  Under,  sótto. 

On,  su  (before  a  vowel,  sur"),  sópra.      Upon,  su  (before  vowels,  sur),  sópra. 

On  this  side  of,  al  di  qua  di.  Up  to,  fino  a,  sino  a. 

On  to,  su  (before  vowels,  sur)y  sópra.     With,  con. 

Opposite,  dirimpetto  a.  Within,  fra,  tra. 

Out  of,  da,  di,  fuòri  di.  Within  (=  inside  of),  déntro  di. 

Outside  of,  fuòri  di.  Without,  sènza. 

Over,  sópra.  Without  (=  outside  of),  fuòri  di. 

When  governing  a  personal  pronoun  contra^  diètro,  dòpo, 
sénza^  sópra,  sótto,  and  often  fra  and  verso  take  di  after 
them  :  as  sériza  di  me,  "  without  me  "  ;  fra  di  lóro,  *'  among 
themselves."  After  con,  in,  per,  a  word  beginning  with  s 
impure  generally  prefixes  e**  :  as  la  strada,  **the  street  "  ; 
in  istrada,  "in  the  street." 

a.  "To  "  before  the  name  of  a  country,  after  a  verb  of  motion, 
is  in. 

Ex.  :  Andiamo  in  Frància,  let  us  go  to  France. 

b.  "To"  before  an  infinitive  is  rendered  in  Italian  as  follows: 
(i)  After  the  verbs  bastare,  "suffice";  bisognare,  "need";  con- 
venire,  "  suit  "  ;  desiderare,  "  desire  "  ;  dovére,  "  must,"  "  ought  "  ; 
fare,  "  make  "  ;  lasciare,  "  let  "  ;  parere,  "  seem  "  ;  potére,  "  can," 
"  be  able  "  ;  sapere,  "  know  "  ;  sentire,  "  hear,"  "  feel  "  ;  solére, 
"  be  accustomed  "  ;  udire,  "  hear  "  ;  vedere,  "  see  "  ;  and  volére, 
"wish,"  "to"  before  a  following  infinitive  is  omitted.  It  is 
omitted  also  in  exclamations  and  indirect  questions  consisting 
only  of  an  interrogative  and  an  infinitive. 


*  Cf.  58,  a. 


yS  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

Ex.  :   Dovrei  capire,  I  ought  to  understand. 

Bisógna  pensarci,  it  is  necessary  to  look  out  for  it. 
Potremo  venire,  we  shall  be  able  to  come. 
Non  sa  che  fare  ne  dóve  avvòlgersi,  he  doesn't  know  what  to 
do  nor  where  to  turn. 

(2)  After  verbs  of  accustoming,  attaining,  beginning,  compel- 
ling, continuing,  hastening,  helping,  inviting,  learning,  prepar- 
ing, teaching,  and  after  verbs  of  motion,  "  to  "  before  a  following 
infinitive  is  a. 

Ex.  :   Andranno  a  vedérla,  they  will  go  to  see  her. 
Si  affrettò  a  rispóndere,  he  hastened  to  reply. 

(3)  After  all  other  verbs  it  is  di;  but  "to"  denoting  purpose 
or  result  is  per^  and  "  to  "  indicating  duty  or  necessity  is  da, 

Ex.  :   Gli  dissi  di  scrivere,  I  told  him  to  write. 
Mi  è  grato  di  dirlo,  I  am  happy  to  say  so. 
Légge  per  divertirsi,  he  reads  to  amuse  himself. 
É  tròppo  basso  per  arrivarci,  he's  too  short  to  reach  it. 
Ho  qualchecòsa  da  fare,  I  have  something  to  do. 

c.  "  By  "  denoting  the  agent  is  da, 

Ex.  :   Fu  fatto  da  lui,  it  was  done  by  him. 

d.  "  In  "  is  in  ;  but  when  expressing  future  time  it  is  fra, 
Ex.  :  Fra  tre  giórni  sarà  finito,  in  three  days  it  will  be  finished. 

e.  "For"  is  per:  as  /'  ha  fatto  per  me,  "he  has  done  it  for  me." 
But  in  the  sense  of  "since,"  in  speaking  of  past  time,  "for"  is  da. 
"For,"  meaning  "during,"  is  omitted  or  translated  durante.  Sen- 
tences like  "it  is  right  for  him  to  do  it"  must  be  translated  by  che 
with  the  subjunctive  :  è  giusto  che  lo  fàccia. 

Ex.  :   Di7nòra  da  mólti  anni  a  Firenze,  he  has  lived  for  many  years 
at  Florence  (see  73). 
Resterò  cinque  settimane,  I  shall  stay  for  five  weeks. 
Piòvve  durante  un  mése,  it  rained  for  a  month. 
Bisógna  cW  lo  vada,  it  is  necessary  for  me  to  go. 


PREPOSITIONS.  79 

/.  "From"  is  da;  but  before  adverbs  and  sometimes  after 
verbs  of  departing  it  is  di.  In  speaking  of  time  it  is  generally 
fin  da. 

Ex.  :  E  lontano  di  qua,  it  is  far  from  here. 
Esco  di  casa,  I  go  out  of  the  house. 
Fin  dal  principio,  from  the  beginning. 

g.  Da  has,  in  addition  to  the  meanings  "  by,"  "  from,"  "  since," 
another  sense  hard  to  render  in  Enghsh  :  it  may  be  translated 
"  as,"  "  characteristic  of,"  "  destined  for,"  "  such  as  to,"  or  "suited 
to,"  according  to  the  context.  Da  means  also  "at  the  house  of" 
or  "  to  the  house  of."  Da  corresponds  to  English  "  on  "  or  "  at  " 
before  the  word  "  side,"  parte,  used  in  its  literal  sense. 

Ex.  ;  Prométto  da  uòmo  d^  onore,  I  promise  as  a  man  of  honor. 

//  Salvini  da  Otello,  Salvini  as  Othello. 

Sareste  tdtito  buòno  da  venire,  would  you  be  so  good  as  to 
come? 

Quésto  è  da  sciocchi,  this  is  acting  like  a  fool. 

//  bambino  ha  un  giudizio  da  grande,  the  child  has  the  judg- 
ment of  a  grown  person. 

La  sdla  da  pranzo,  the  dining-room. 

Uita  tdzza  da  caffè,  a  coffee-cup. 

D  ho  veduto  dal  Signor  Néri,  I  saw  him  at  Mr.  Neri's. 

Viene  da  me,  he  comes  to  my  house. 

Da  quésta  parte,  on  this  side. 

h.  A  is  often  used  before  a  noun  —  not  indicating  material 
(which  is  expressed  by  di)  nor  purpose  (expressed  by  dà)  — 
that  describes  another  noun,  when  in  English  these  two  substan- 
tives would  form  a  compound  word. 

Ex.  :  Una  màcchina  a  vapóre,  a  steam-engine. 
Una  sèdia  a  dóndolo,  a  rocking-chair. 
Uno  sgabèllo  a  tre  piedi,  a  three-legged  stool. 

i.   Essere  per  or  stare  per  means  "  to  be  about  to." 
Ex.  :  Stava  per  parlare,  he  was  on  the  point  of  speaking. 


80  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

j.   In  some  idiomatic  phrases  di  is  used  in  Italian  when  another 
preposition  would  be  employed  in  English. 

Ex.  :  Di  giórno,  di  nòtte,  by  day,  by  night. 

Èssere  contènto  di  una  còsa,  to  be  satisfied  with  a  thing. 

Vivo  di  pdne,  I  live  on  bread. 

Che  faceva  delle  fòrbici,  what  did  he  do  with  the  scissors? 


ADVERBS. 

80.  (i)  Adverbs,  unless  they  begin  the  clause,  are  gen- 
erally placed  immediately  after  the  verb  ;  7wn^  however, 
always  precedes  the  verb.  When  a  compound  tense  is 
used,  the  adverb  nearly  always  follows  the  past  participle, 
but  già,  mài,  piti,  and  sempre  usually  precede  it.  See  also 
84.  Non  precedes  a  conjunctive  and  follows  a  disjunctive 
pronoun. 

Ex.  :  Non  ci  vado  mài,  I  never  go  there. 

Ho  parlato  spésso,  1  have  often  spoken. 

Non  ha  sèmpre  parlato  così,  he  hasn't  always  talked  so. 

Io  non  lo  vedo,  I  don't  see  him. 

(2)  Adverbs  are  compared  like  adjectives  (see  31)  ;  but 
"  better,"  "  worse,"  **  more,"  "  less  "  are  respectively  meglioy 
peggioy  piiiy  meno. 

81.  *'Yes"  is  si  or  già:  sì  when  it  expresses  real  affir- 
mation, già  when  it  denotes  passive  assent.  "  No  "  is  no. 
"  Not  "  is  non,  after  which  a  word  beginning  with  s  impure 
generally  prefixes  i.  *'  Or  not  "  at  the  end  of  a  clause  is 
0  no  :  as  sia  véro  0  no,  "  whether  it  be  true  or  not." 

Ex.  :  Le  piace  ?  —  Sì.  —  "  Do  you  like  it  ?  "     "  Yes." 

Che  tempaccio  !  —  Già.  —  "  What  nasty  weather  !  "     "  Yes." 
Sta  bène,  he  is  well  ;  non  istà  bène,  he  isn't  well. 


ADVERBS.  8l 

a.  "  What?  "  meaning  "  what  do  you  say  ?  "  is  cóme?  Che  and 
the  interjection  o  are  often  used  to  introduce  questions. 

Ex.  ;  O  perchè  non  rispondete  f  —  Cóme  ?  —  Che  siete  sórdo,  signóre  f 
—  "  Why  don't  you  answer  ?  "  "  What  ?  "  "  Are  you  deaf, 
sir?" 

Ò.  "Very"  is  mólto  (see,  however,  35,  a).  Instead  of  using  a 
word  or  suffix  for  "very,"  the  ItaHans  often  repeat  the  emphasized 
adjective  or  adverb. 

Ex.':  È  mólto  bèllo  or  è  bellissÌ7no,  it  is  very  beautiful. 

I  sudi  genitóri  èrano  pòveri  pòveri,  his  parents  were  very  poor. 

82.  "Only"  may  be  translated  by  the  adverb  sólo,  sol- 
tanto, or  solamente  ;  or  by  the  adjective  sólo.  When  it  modi- 
fies anything  but  a  verb,  it  is  often  rendered  by  7ton  .  .  .  che, 
with  the  whole  verb  intervening,  and  with  the  word  modi- 
fied by  "only"  immediately  after  che. 

Ex.  :  Non  ne  ho  comprato  che  due,  I  have  bought  only  two  of  them. 

83.  "Never"  is  non . . .  mài,  with  the  inflected  part  of  the 
verb  intervening.  "Just,"  as  an  adverb  of  time,  is  or  óra. 
"  Early  "  is  prèsto,  per  tèmpo,  or  di  buon  óra.  "  This  morn- 
ing" is  stamane  ;  "last  night  "  is  stanòtte.  "The  day  after 
to-morrow"  and  "the  day  before  yesterday"  are  respec- 
tively domdn  V  altro  and  ier  V  altro.  "A  week,  a  fortnight 
from  to-day  "  are  òggi  a  òtto,  a  qtiindici.  "  Ago  "  is  trans- 
lated hy  fa,  which  follows  the  substantive  of  time  ;  if  this 
substantive  is  plural,  "  ago  "  may  be  rendered  also  by  sÓ7w 
{èrano  or  saranno  if  the  date  from  which  time  is  counted 
be  past  or  future). 

Ex.  :  Non  ti  ha  mài  veduto,  he  has  never  seen  thee. 
Son  arrivati  or  óra,  they  have  just  arrived. 
Tre  anni  fa,  three  years  ago  ;  quattro  giórni  sono,  four  days 
ago. 


82  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

Ex.  :   Lunedì  èrano  due  settimane^  two  weeks  ago  Monday. 

Domani  saranno  cinque  7nési,  five  months  ago  to-morrow. 

84.  "  Here  "  and  "  there  "  when  they  denote  a  place 
already  mentioned,  and  no  particular  stress  is  laid  upon 
them,  are  ci  and  vi,  which  are  often  used  in  Italian  when 
they  would  be  superfluous  in  English;  "there  is,"  ''there 
are,"  etc.,  are  c'  è  or  vi  è,  ci  sono  or  vi  sono,  etc.  (sometimes 
vi  ha).  Ci,  vi,  and  also  ne,  "thence,"  occupy  the  same  posi- 
tions with  regard  to  the  verb,  and  undergo  the  same  changes, 
as  the  pronouns  ci,  vi,  ne  (48,  50);  they  precede  conjunc- 
tive pronouns  beginning  with  /  or  n,  and  follow  all  others  : 
ce  lo  manda,  ti  ci  mando. 

When  emphasized,  "  here  "  is  qui  or  qua,  "  there  "  indi- 
cating a  place  near  the  person  addressed  is  costì  or  costà, 
and  "there"  denoting  a  point  remote  from  both  speaker 
and  hearer  is  lì  or  là. 

Ex.  :   Carlo  vi  è  tornato,  Charles  has  gone  back  there. 
Alia  scuòla  non  ci  vado,  I  don't  go  to  school. 
Vói  rimarrete  costà,  égli  resterà  laggiìi,  ed  io  non  partirò  di 
qui,  you  will  remain  where  you  are,  he  will  stay  down  there, 
and  I  shall  not  move  from  here. 

a.   "  Here  I  am,"  "  here  it  is,"  etc.,  are  eccomi,  eccolo,  etc. 

86.  Most  adverbs  of  manner  are  formed  by  adding 
-ménte  to  the  feminine  singular  of  the  corresponding  adjec- 
tive. Adjectives  in  -le  and  -re  drop  their  final  e  in  forming 
the  adverb.    See  35,  a. 

Ex.  :   Franco,  frank  ;  francamente,  frankly. 
Felice,  happy  ;  felicemente,  happily. 
Piacévole,  pleasant  ;  piacevolmente,  pleasantly. 

a.  "So"  meaming  "it"  is  translated  lo  :  as  lo  faccio ^  "I  do 
60  "  ;  lo  créde,  "  he  thinks  so  "  ;  lo  dicono,  "  they  say  so." 


CONJUNCTIONS,   PREPOSITIONS,   AND    ADVERBS.  83 


EXERCISE   19. 

Agostino  è  un  golóso  di  prima  riga.  Cóme^  vedeva  dèi  con- 
fètti, una  chicca,  delle  frutta,  sùbito  se  le  pigliava  e  mangiava 
sènza  permésso,  anche  se  non  èrano  sue.  Infmo  ì  suoi  compagni 
di  scuòla  lo  rimproveravano  di  quésto  viziacelo.  La  maèstra 
pensò  di  punire  Agostino.  Un  giórno,  quando  fu  1'  óra  della 
ricreazióne,  tirò  fuòri  dàUa  sua  cassétta  de'  confètti,  e  mettendoli 
nel  panière  d'  Agostino,  gli  disse  ^  :  —  Quésti  lì  porterai  a  casa  alla 
tua  sorellina.  —  Agostino  a  veder  que'  confètti  féce^  cèrti  occhióni 
gròssi  cóme  quelli  d' un  bòve.  Non  istàva  più  in  sè^  dàlia  vòglia 
di  mangiare  que'  confètti.  Era  tanto  golóso,  che  se  aveva  qual- 
còsa di  suo  non  dava  nulla  a  nessuno  ;  èra  tanto  golóso,  che  aveva 
la  sfacciataggine  di  mangiare  le  còse  dégh  altri;  o  figuratevi 
dùnque  cóme  si  struggeva  di*  mangiar  que'  confètti  eh'  èrano  nel 
suo  panierino.  Finita  la  refezióne,  i  bambini  vanno ^  nel  giardino. 
Appéna  Agostino  vede  che  nella  stanza  dov'  èrano  i  panierini  non 
e'  èra  nessuno,  sparisce  dal  giardino,  e  via  a  pigHàre  i  confètti. 
Ma  non  ha  finito  di  buttar  giù  il  primo,  che  ^  sente  un  amaro,  un 
sapóre  così  cattivo  da  non  poter  règgere  ;  sputa  e  rispùta,  ma 
r  amaro  non  se  ne  andava.^  Era  curióso  veder  Agostino  disperato 
per  quel  saporàccio.  E  i  compagni  chi  da  un  ùscio,  chi  da  un 
altro,  e  chi  dàlia  finèstra  che  dava  sul  giardino,  stavano  a  vedérlo, 
e  a  ridere  di  quésta  cèha  che  la  maèstra  aveva  fatto  ^  a  quel  golóso. 
Allóra  la  maèstra  gli  disseti  —  Vedi,  Agostino;  ho  fatto ^  fare 
quésti  confètti  pièni  d'  assènzio  appòsta  per  te  ;  vedi  a  che  còsa 
pòrta  1'  ingordigia  !  Un  altro  bambino  non  ci  sarebbe  rimasto  a^ 
quésta  célia.  —  Agostino  si  accòrse^  che  la  signóra  maèstra  gli 
aveva  fatta  ^  quésta  célia  per  suo  bène,  e  che  se  non  si  correggeva 
diventava  lo  zimbèllo  di  tutti.  ^ 

^  When.  2  /)ife^  8  Hq  ^^s  beside  himself.  *  He  was  dying  to.  ^  An» 
dare,  andarsene.  ®  Fare.  "^  Wouldn't  have  been  taken  in  by.  ^  Ac' 
corgersi.    ^  See  footnote  (J)  on  p.  69. 


^A  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  20. 

It  is  related  that  in  by-gone^  times  a  parrot  escaped  from  a 
nlla.  This  parrot  had  learned  to  say  all-the-time- :  ''Who's 
there ^?  who's-there^?"  Having-fled''  into  a  wood,  it  was  flying 
from  one  tree  to  another  without  knowing  where  to  go.  A  peas- 
ant, who  by  chance  was  hunting^  in  that  place,  eyed  the  parrot, 
and  having  never  seen  any^^  birds  before^  of  this  sort,  he  was^ 
amazed  at-it,^  and  took^  all-possible  ^°  care  to  aim  straight  with  his 
gun,  so-as-to  shoot-it"  and  carry  it  to  show  off  as  a  rare  thing. 
But  while  the  peasant  was  aiming,  the  parrot,  seeing"*  him,  repeated 
his  usual  question  :  "Who's-there^?  who's-there^?"  The-peas- 
ant's-blood-froze-in-his-veins  ^  at  those  words  ;  and  lowering'*  his 
^an,  and  taking-his-hat-from-his-head  ^^  he  hastened  to  reply  to 
him,  dreadfully"  mortified  :  "  Excuse-me,^^  for-mercy's-sake,^^  I 
took'^  you  for  a  bird  !  " 

I  Anddii.  2  Always.  ^  Chi  c'  è.  *  Past  participle.  ^  ^  càccia.  ^  Per 
V  innanzi.  "^  Rimase  :  see  54,  /.  ^  Ne.  ^  Gave  himself.  1°  Ogni. 
11  Tirargli.  12  To  the  peasant  not  remained  blood  in-him  {addòsso). 
13  Levatosi  di  capo  il  cappello.  1*  Tutto.  1*  La  scusi,  i^  For  charity 
17  Had  taken,    is  Omit. 


INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS. 

86.  "One,"  "people,"  "we,"  "you,"  "they,"  used  in  an 
indefinite  sense,  are  rendered  in  Italian  by  the  reflexive 
construction  with  si  (see  55). 

Ex.  :  Si  cdnia  bène  in  Italia.,  they  sing  well  in  Italy. 

Si  fa  cost,  you  do  this  way  ;  se  ne  parla,  people  speak  of  it. 
Si  fanno  spésso  quéste  còse,  one  often  does  these  things. 


INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS.  85 

«7.  ''All"  as  a  substantive  is  tutto  {tutti,  etc.)  :  as  tace- 
vano  tutti,  "all  were  silent."  The  adjective  *' all,"  "the 
whole  "  is  tutto  followed  by  the  definite  article  :  as  tiitta  la 
terra,  "the  whole  earth"  ;  tiitto  il  giórno,  "all  day"  ;  tiUte 
le  romàne  son  belle,  "all  Roman  ladies  are  beautiful." 

88.  "Any,"  when  it  really  adds  nothing  to  the  sense,  is 
omitted  :  as  non  ha  libri,  "  he  hasn't  (any)  books  "  ;  volete 
vino,  "  do  you  want  (any)  wine  ?  "  When,  however,  this 
redundant  "any"  might  be  replaced  by  "any  of  the,"  it  is 
translated  by  the  partitive  genitive  (see  12,  a)  :  as  volete 
del  vino,  "  do  you  want  any  (of  the)  wine  ì  " 

"Any"  used  substantively  in  the  sense  of  "any  of  it," 
"any  of  them  "  is  ne  (see  47,  3)  :  as  7t07i  ne  ho,  "  I  haven't 
any  "  ;  non  7ie  ha  piii,  "  he  hasn't  any  more  "  ;  7te  avete, 
"have  you  any?  " 

"Any"  used  adjectively  and  meaning  "any  whatsoever" 
is  qualùnque  :  as  lo  fa  meglio  di  qualihique  altra  persóna, 
"^he  does  it  better  than  any  other  person." 

89.  "Some,"  when  it  adds  nothing  to  the  sense,  is 
omitted  or  rendered  by  the  partitive  genitive  :  as  volete 
burro  or  volete  del  burro,  "will  you  have  some  butter?" 

"Some"  meaning  "some  of  it,"  "some  of  them"  is  ne: 
as  ne  ha,  "  he  has  some." 

Otherwise  "  some  "  is  alcimo  or  qualche.  Qualche  is 
always  singular  (even  when  the  meaning  is  plural),  and  is 
never  used  substantively.  Ex.  :  alcune  persóne  or  qualche 
persóna,  "some  persons  "  ;  alcuni  lo  dicono,  "  some  say  so." 

90.  "Some  ,  .  .  others,"  "the  one  .  .  .  the  other,"  "one 
,  .  .  another  "  are  translated  by  chi  .  .  .  chi,  altri  .  .  .  dltri^ 
V  uno  .  .  .  /*  àltrot  or  alcuni  .  .  .  alcuni. 


86 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


Alcuni  used  in  this  way  is  always  plural.  A  verb  whose 
subject  is  chi  or  altri  (used  in  this  sense)  is  always  singu- 
lar ;  altri  is  not  used  after  prepositions.  But  /'  uno  and 
/*  altro  can  be  used  in  any  case  or  number. 

Ex.  :   TMti,  chi  più  tòsto ,  e  chi  ménOy  morivano,  ali  died,  some 
sooner,  some  later. 
Altri  cade,  altri  fugge,  some  fall,  others  flee. 
Gli  Uni  son  buoni,  gli  altri  cattivi,  some  are  good,  others  bad. 


91.    Following  is  a  list  of  some  other  indefinite  pro- 
nouns and  adjectives  :  — 


Anybody,  qualcuno,  qualchedùno,  chic- 
chessia, pronouns. 

Any  more,  più,  ne  . . ,  più,  pron. 

Anything,  qualchecòsa,  pron. 

Anything  else,  dltro,  pron. 

Both,  tutti  e  due,  V  uno  e  V  dltro^  am- 
bedue, pron.  or  adj. 

Certain,  cèrto,  adj. 

Each,  ógni,  ciascuno,  ognuno,  adj. 

Either,  /'  uno  o  V  altro,  pron.  or  adj. 

Every,  ógni,  ciascuno,  ognuno,  ciasche- 
duno, adj. 

Everybody,  tutti  (pi.),  ciascheduno, 
ciascuno,  ognuno,  pron. 

Everything,  tutto,  pron. 

Few,  a  few,  pòchi  (pi.),  pron.  or  adj. 

However  much,  (or  many) ,  per  quanto 
{-ti),  adj. 

Little,  poco,  pron.  or  adj. 

Less,  meno,  pron.  or  adj.* 

Many,  mólti,  pron.  or  adj.f 

More,  più,  pron.  or  adj. 

Much,  mólto,  pron.  or  adj. 


Neither,  non  .  .  .  /'  uno  né  V  dltroy  né 

V  uno  né  V  dltro,  pron.  or  adj. 
No,  non  . .  .  nessuno,  non  . . .  alcuno, 

adj. 
Nobody,  non  . . .  nessuno,  pron. 
No  more,  non  ne  .  . ,  più,  pron.,  non 

. .  ,più,  adj. 
None,  non  ne  . .  .,  pron. 
Nothing,  non . . .  niente,  non . . .  nulla, 

pron. 
Nothing  else,  non  .  . .  più  niènte,  non 

.  .  .  più  nulla,  pron. 
Others,  altrùi  (see  91,  d),  pron. 
Several,   parécchi    (fem.    parécchie)^ 

pron.  or  adj. 
Somebody,    qualchedùno,     qualcuno, 

pron.    • 
Something,  qualchecòsa,  pron. 
Such,  tdle,  adj. 
Such  a,  un  tdle,  adj.  (but  also  pron 

in  Ital.,  meaning  "so-and-so  "). 
Whatever,    qualùnque     (invariable), 

adj. 


♦  "  Less  "  =  "  smaller  "  is  più  piccolo.       f  "  A  great  many  "  is  moltissimi» 


INDEFINITE    PRONOUNS.  8/ 

a.  The  verb  used  with  nessuno^  alcuno,  niènte,  nulla  (meaning 
^no,"  *' nobody,"  "nothing")  must  be  preceded  by  non,  "not,'' 
unless  this  pronoun  or  adjective  precedes  the  verb. 

Ex.  :  ATon  ho  visto  nessuno,  I  have  seen  nobody. 

Nessun  pòpolo  lo  possiede^  no  people  possesses  it. 

b.  "Nothing  "  followed  by  an  adjective  is  niènte  di. 
Ex.  :  Non  avete  niènte  di  buono,  you  have  nothing  good. 

e.  Ciascuno,  ciascheduno,  ognuno,  nessuno,  and  alcuno  when 
used  adjectively  are  inflected  like  uno  (see  14,  15). 

d.  Altrùi^  "  another,"  "  others,"  "  our  neighbor,"  is  invariable, 
and  is  not  used  as  subject  of  a  verb  :  as  con  altrùi,  "with  other 
people  "  ;  chi  ama  altrùi  ama  se  stésso,  "  he  who  loves  his  neigh- 
bor loves  himself."  The  prepositions  di  and  a  are  sometimes 
omitted  before  it  :  as  la  móstro  altrùi,  "  I  point  her  out  to 
others  "  ;  /a  vòglia  altrùi,  "  the  will  of  another." 

EXERCISE  21. 

Permutare^!  Riccardo  dice^  male  di  qualchedùno.  Che 
brutto  vizio  è  mài  quello  !  A  sentir  Riccardo,  tutti  son  àsini, 
tutti  sono  cattivi  ;  di  buòni  e  di  bravi  non  e'  è  che  lui.  Ma  ora- 
mài  ognuno  ha  conosciuto  di  che  panni  vèste,^  e  nessuno  gli  créde 
più.  Se  fòsse  bravo  e  buòno,  si  guarderebbe  dal  dir  male  di  quésto 
e  di  quello,  anche  quando  ne  avesse  qualche  ragióne.  Figuratevi, 
dùnque,  se  può*  èssere  buòno  e  bravo  lui  che  dice  male  di  tutti  ! 
Sòrte,  ripèto,  che  nessuno  gU  créde  più,  e  quando  si  sente  dir 
male  di  qualchedùno,  e  si  sa^  che  e'  è  Riccardo  di  mézzo,®  ognuno 
si  affretta  a  rispóndere  :  Se  1'  ha  détto^  quel  maldicènte  di  Ric- 
cardo, non  è  véro  nulla  dicèrto. 

1  There  he  is  at  it  again  !  2  Dire.  8  What  sort  of  a  fellow  he  is.  *  Po- 
tére.     ^  Sapere.      ^  At  the  bottom  of  it. 


88  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

LIST   OF    IRREGULAR   VERBS 

Arranged  according  to  Conjugation.* 

92.  This  list  contains  no  compound  verbs  except  those 
which  differ  in  conjugation  from  their  simple  verbs  and 
those  for  which  no  simple  verb  exists  in  Italian.  With 
every  verb  its  irregular  forms  are  given  :  in  the  same  line 
with  the  infinitive  are  the  present  participle  (if  it  be  needed 
to  show  the  original  form  of  the  infinitive),  the  first  person 
singular  of  the  preterite  indicative,  the  past  participle,  and 
the  first  person  singular  of  the  future  indicative  (if  the 
future  be  contracted)  ;  immediately  below  are  the  present 
indicative,  the  imperative,  and  the  present  subjunctive,  if 
these  parts  be  peculiar.  For  dare  and  stare  the  whole  pre- 
terite and  the  first  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  sub- 
junctive are  given  also.  Èssere  is  irregular  throughout. 
All  tenses  not  mentioned  are  regtdar.  For  peculiar  endings ^ 
see  63,  68.     Note  the  following  rules  :  — 

a.  If  iki^ present  participle  \s  given,  the  following  forms,  unless 
expressly  mentioned,  are  to  be  constructed  from  its  stem  :  2Ì}X pre- 
terite forms  with  accented  endings^  and  the  whole  imperfect  indica- 
tive and  subjunctive.  E.  g.fdre,  pres.  ^2iX\..  facendo  :  hence  pret.  2d 
sing,  and  ist  and  2d  ^^X.^  facesti^  facemmo,  faceste  ;  imp.  \x\à..^  faceva, 
etc.  ;  imp.  ^\y}o].,  facessi,  etc. 

If  the  present  participle  is  not  given,  these  forms,  unless  they 
be  mentioned,  are  to  be  constructed  from  the  stem  of  the  infini- 
tive. E.  g.  venire:  pret.  venisti,  venimmo,  veniste  ;  imp.  ind.  veniva; 
imp.  subj.  venissi. 

b.  Preterites  in  -ài,  -éi,  -ti,  and  -étti  (except  détti  and  stetti)  are 

*  Reference  to  these  tables  is  facilitated  by  an  Alphabetical  List  of  Irregu- 
lar and  Defective  Verbs  (see  page  loi).  Students  are  advised  not  to  learn 
forms  in  parentheses  nor  any  verbs  or  forms  marked  rare  ox  poetical. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


89 


regular  throughout.  In  all  other  preterites  the  third  person  sin- 
gular can  be  formed  from  the  first  person  by  changing  final  /  to  e^ 
and  the  third  person  plural  by  adding  -ro  to  the  third  person  sin- 
gular.   'E.g. fare,  pret./m:  3d  sing./^^e,  3d  pl./^rero. 

c.  If  the  future  is  not  given,  it  is  to  be  constructed  from  the 
infinitive.  The  conditional  always  has  the  same  stem  as  the 
future.     See  65,  p.  60. 

d.  The  imperative,  when  not  given,  is  like  the  corresponding 
forms  of  the  present  indicative.     See  66,  b^  top  of  p.  62. 

FIRST    CONJUGATION. 

I.  Andare,  ^^,  andai,  andato  ;  andrò  (anderò). 


PRES. 

IND. 

IMPER. 

PRES. 

SUBJ. 

Vado  or  v6, 

andiamo, 

Va', 

Vada, 

andiamo, 

vai, 

andate, 

andiamo, 

vada, 

andiate, 

va, 

vanno. 

andate. 

vada, 

vadano. 

2.  Fare,  do,  facendo,  feci,*  fatto  ;  farò.    Fare  {formerly  also  fàcere) 
was  originally  a  verb  of  the  third  cojtjugation  :  see  92,  a. 

PRES.  IND.  IMPER.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Faccio  or  io,       facciamo.  Fa',  Fàccia,       facciamo, 

fài,t  fate,  facciamo,  fàccia,         facciate, 

fa,t  fanno.  fate.  fàccia,         facciano. 

3.  Dare, ^/z/^,  diedi  or  détti,  dato;  darò.     Imp.  subj.  dessi. 


PRES.  IND. 

PRET.  IND. 

IMPER. 

PRES.  SUBJ. 

Dò, 

Diedi  or  détti. 

Dia, 

dai, 

désti, 

Da', 

dia, 

dà, 

diede  or  dette,:^ 

dia, 

diamo, 

demmo, 

diamo, 

diamo, 

date, 

déste, 

date. 

diate, 

danno. 

diedero  or  dettero.^ 

diano  or  dieno. 

*  In  poetry  we  sometimes  find  a  preterite  fìi^  fésti,  fé  or  féo,  fénimo,  fèste, 
férono  or  fénno  ;  and  an  imp.  ind.  féa,  etc. 
+  Also  fdci,  fact. 
X  Also  die,  sing,  ;   dier  or  diéro  or  diérono,  pi. 


90 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


4.   Stare  (67,  a),  stand,  stétti,  stato;  starò.    Imp.  sicbj.  stéssi. 


PRES.   IND. 

PRET.    IND. 

IMPER. 

PRES.    SUBJ. 

St6, 

Stetti, 

Stia, 

Stài, 

stesti, 

Sta', 

stia, 

Sta, 

stette, 

sti'a. 

stiamo, 

stemmo. 

stiamo. 

stiamo, 

state. 

steste. 

state. 

stiate. 

stanno. 

stettero. 

stiano  or  sti'eno. 

SECOND   CONJUGATION. 

5.  Avere,  have,  ebbi,  avuto  ;  avrò.    See  53,  b.* 

6.  Sapere,  know,  seppi,  saputo  ;  saprò. 


PRES.   IND. 

S8,      sappiamo, 
sài,     sapete. 


IMPER. 

Sappi, 

sappiamo, 

sappiate. 


PRES.  SUBJ. 

Sappia,      sappiamo, 
sappia,       sappiate, 
sappia,       sappiano. 


7.   Cadére,  fall,  caddi,  caduto  ;  cadrò. 


PRES.   IND. 

Cado  (càggio),  cadiamo  (caggiàmo), 

càdì,  cadete, 

cade,  cadono    (càggiono). 


PRES.   SUBJ. 
Cada  (càggia),   cadiamo  (caggiàmo), 
cada  (càggia),   cadiate  (caggiàte), 
cada  (càggia),  cadano  (càggiano). 


8.   Dovére,  owe,  dovei  (dovetti),  dovuto  ;  dovrò.    Imperative  lacking. 


PRES.    IND. 

Devo  (debbo  or  déggio), 

devi  (débbi), 

deve  (dèbbe), 

dobbiamo  (deggiàmo), 

dovete, 

devono  (debbono  or  deggiono).t 


PRES.   SUBJ. 

DSbba  (deva  or  dSggia), 

debba   (deva  or  dèggia), 

debba  (deva  or  dèggia), 

dobbiamo, 

dobbiate, 

debbano  (davano  or  déggiano). 


*  In  poetry  ^n^  find  :  àggio,  àbbo,  or  dio  for  ho  ;  ave  for  ha  ;  dggia  or  dia 
for  abbia  ;  ei  for  èbbi  ;  a  future  arò,  etc.,  or  averò,  etc.,  and  similar  forms  in 
the  conditional. 

f  Also  dèo,  dèi,  dèe,  dovémo,  dovete,  dèono  or  dènno. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS.  QI 

9.  Sedére,  sit,  sedei  or  sedetti,  seduto. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Siedo  or  seggo,    sediamo  (seggiàmo),  Sieda  or  segga,    sediamo  (seggiàmo), 

siedi,  sedete,  sieda  or  segga,    sediate, 

siede,  siedono  or  seggono.  sieda  or  segga,    siedano  or  seggano. 

10.  Vedére,  see,  vidi,  veduto  or  visto  ;   vedrò.      Provvedére  has  a 

future  provveder©  ;  prevedére  has  prevedere  or  prevedrò.  Ali 
other  compounds  are  like  vedére. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Vedo  (veggo  or  véggio),  Veda  (vegga  or  véggia), 

vedi,  veda  (vegga  or  véggia), 

vede,  veda  (vegga  or  véggia), 

vediamo  (veggiàmo),  vediamo  (veggiamo), 

vedete,  vediate  (veggiàte), 

vedono  (veggono  or  véggiono).  vedano  (veggano  or  véggiano). 

11.  Giacere, /?>,  giacqui,  giaciuto. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Giaccio,  giacciamo.  Giaccia,  giacciamo, 

giaci,  giacete,  giaccia,  giacciate, 

giace,  giacciono.  giaccia,  giacciano. 

12.  Piacére,  please:  like  giacere  (11). 

13.  Tacére,  be  silent  :  like  giacere  (11). 

14.  Solére,  be  wont,  solito.    No  pret.,  fui.,  cond.,  nor  imperative. 


PRES.  IND. 

PRES.  SUBJ. 

Soglio,                   sogliamo. 

Soglia,                   sogliamo. 

suoli,                       solete. 

soglia,                   sogliàte, 

suole,                     sogliono. 

soglia,                   sogliano. 

15.   Dolere,  grieve,  dolsi,  doluto;  dorrò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Dolgo  (dòglio),    dogliamo,*  Dolga  (doglia),    dogliamo,* 

duoli,  dolete,  dolga  (doglia),    dogliàte, 

iuole,  dolgono  (dogliono).        dolga  (doglia),    dolgano  (dogliano). 

*  Also  dolghiàmo  :  a  popular  form. 


92 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


1 6.  Rimanére,  remain,  rimasi,  rimasto  or  rimàso;  rimarrò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Rimango,  rimaniamo,*  Rimanga,  rimaniamo,* 

rimani,  rimanete,  rimanga,  rimaniate, 

rimane,  rimangono.  rimanga,  rimàngano. 

17.  Tenére,  hold,  tenni,  tenuto;  terrò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Tengo,  teniamo,*  Tenga,  teniamo,* 

tieni,  tenete,  tenga,  teniàte, 

tiene,  tengono.  tenga,  tengano. 

18.  Valére,  be  worth,  valsi,  valuto  or  valso  ;  varrò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Valgo  (vàglio),    vagliamo,*  Valga  (vàglia),    vagliamo,* 

vali,  valete,  valga   (vàglia),    vagliate, 

vàie,  valgono  (vàgliono).       valga  (vàglia),    valgano  (vagliano). 

19.  Volére,  wish,  vólli,t  voluto  ;  vorrò. 

PRES.  IND.  IMPER.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Voglio,  vogliamo,  Vogli,  Voglia,       vogliamo, 

vu6i,t  volete,  vogliamo,  voglia,        vogliate, 

vuole,  vogliono.  vogliate.  voglia,        vogliano. 

20.  Parére,  seem,  parvi,  parùto  or  parso  ;  parrò. 

PRES.    IND.  PRES.    SUBJ. 

Pàio,  paiamo  or  pariamo,  Paia,  paiamo  or  pariamo, 

pari,  paréte,  paia,  paiate, 

pare,  paiono.  paia,  paiano. 

21.  Potére,  be  able,  potei,  potuto;  potrò.§    No  imperative. 

PRES.    IND.  PRES.    SUBJ. 

Posso,  possiamo,  Pòssa,  possiamo, 

puoi,  potete,  pòssa,  possiate, 

può,  Il  possono.  Il  pòssa,  possano. 


*  PAso  rimanghidmo  ;  tenghiàmo  ;  valghidmo:  popular  forms. 

t  Also  volsi.  X  Also  vuogli  or  vuòli. 

§  In  poetry  we  find  a  conditional  potala.         \\  Also  puòie  ;  panno. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS.  93 

22.  Persuadére,  persuade,  persuasi,  persuaso.    Pres.  persuado,  etc. 

23.  Calére,  matter,  càlse, "Saluto.    Impersonai.    No  fut.,  cond.,  nor 

imperative.     Nat  modem. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Cale.  Caglia. 

THIRD    CONJUGATION. 

e.  All  irregular  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  are  accented,  m 
the  singular  and  third  person  plural  of  the  present  indicative  and 
subjunctive,  on  the  same  syllable  as  in  the  infinitive. 

/.  Verbs  in  -cere  and  -gere  insert  no  /  between  the  c  ox  g  and 
the  ^  or  ^  of  the  present  indicative  and  subjunctive  endings, 
except  in  the  first  person  plural  of  both  moods  and  the  second 
person  plural  of  the  subjunctive.    Cf.  60,  last  paragraph. 

g.  See  chapter  on  Pronunciation,  4,  S,  d, 

PRESENT    REGULAR. 

24.  Accendere,  light,  accési,  accéso. 

25.  Afflìggere,  afflict,  afflissi,  afflitto. 

26.  Algere,  be  cold,  àlsi.     Defective.    Rare. 
Tj.  Allùdere,  allude,  allùsi  (alludéi),  allùso. 

28.  Àrdere,  bum,  àrsi,  àrso. 

29.  Arrògere,  add,  arrósi,  arreso  or  arroto.     Defective.     Rare. 

30.  Assidere,  besiege,  assisi,  assiso.     Rare. 

31.  Assòlvere,  absolve,  assolvetti  or  assolvei  or  assòlsi,  assòlto  or 

assoluto.     So  risòlvere  {determine)  \  for  solvere,  dissòlvere, 
and  risòlvere  {dissolve),  see  107. 

32.  Assòrbere,  absorb,  assórsi  {not  in  use),  assórto.     Rare. 

33.  Avellere,  uproot,  avulse,  avulso.     Defective.     Rare. 

34.  Chiùdere,  shut,  chiùsi,  chiùso.     So  ali  verbs  in  -chiùdere  or 

-elùdere.    See,  however,  4,  S,.^?. 

35.  Còlere,  revere,  cólto  or  culto.     Defective.     Rare. 

36.  Connèttere,  connect,  connèssi   (connettéi),   connèsso  (connet- 

tùto).     Rare. 

37.  Conóscere,  know,  conóbbi,  conosciuto. 

38.  Conquidere,  conquer,  conquisi,  conquiso.     Rare^ 


94  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

39.  Consùmere,  consume,  consùnsi,  consunto.     Rare.     Presùmere 

has  also  presuméi. 

40.  Contùndere,  bruise,  contùsi,  contùso. 

41.  Córrere,  run,  córsi,  córso. 

42.  Créscere,  grow,  crébbi,  cresciuto. 

43.  Cuòcere,  cook,  cocéndo,  còssi,  còtto.   Pres.  cuòcio  (9/- cuòco,  cic.^ 

44.  Decidere,  decide,  decisi,  deciso. 

45.  Difèndere,  defend,  difési  (difendei),  diféso. 

46.  Dirigere,  direct,  diressi,  diretto. 

47.  Discùtere,  discuss,  discùssi  (discutei),  discùsso. 

48.  Distinguere,  distinguish,  distinsi,  distinto. 

49.  Divìdere,  divide,  divìsi,  diviso. 

50.  Elidere,  elide,  elisi  (elidei),  eliso. 

51.  Elùdere,  elude,  elùsi  (eludei  or  eludetti),  elùso. 

52.  Èrgere,  erect,  èrsi,  èrto.     Rare. 

53.  Esìgere,  exact,  esigei  (esigetti),  esatto. 

54.  Esistere,  exist,  esistei  (esistetti),  esistito. 

55.  Espèllere,  expel,  espulsi,  espulso.    Rare. 

56.  Esplòdere,  explode,  esplòsi,  esplòso. 

57.  Esprimere,  express,  esprèssi,  esprèsso.     So  ali  other  verbs  in 

-primere.     Prèmere  and  its  cojnpounds  are  regi  dar. 

58.  Fèndere,  split,  fendei  (fendetti  or  fèssi),  fenduto  or  fésso. 

59.  Figgere  (fìgere),y?;r,  fìssi,  fitto. 

60.  Fingere,  feign,  finsi,  finto. 

61.  Fóndere,  melt,  fusi  (fondéi),  fuso  (fonduto). 

62.  Fràngere,  break,  frànsi,  frànto. 

63.  Frìggere, /ry,  frissi,  fritto. 

64.  Genuflèttere,  kneel,  genuflèssi,  genuflèsso.     Rare, 

65.  Intridere,  dihite,  intrisi,  intriso. 

66.  Intrudere,  intrude,  intrusi,  intruso. 

67.  Invàdere,  invade,  invàsi,  invàso. 

68.  Lèdere,  offend,  lèsi  {not  in  use^,  lèso.     Rare. 

69.  Lèggere,  read,  lèssi,  lètto. 

70.  Lìcere  or  lécere,  be  lawful,  lécito  or  licito.     Impersonai.    De- 

fective.    Poetical. 

71.  Lùdere, //«y,  lùsi,  lùso.     Rare. 

72.  M  èrgere,  plunge,  mèrsi,  mèrso.    Rare. 

73.  Méttere,  put,  méssi  or  misi,  mésso. 

*  In  the  ist  and  2d  persons  plural  of  the  pres.  ind.,  subj.,  and  impera» 
tivQ,  uo  is  generally  replaced  by  0  :  cociamo^  etc. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


95 


74.  Mòlcere,  soothe,  mùlse.     Defective.     Rare. 

75.  Mòrdere,  bite,  mòrsi,  mòrso. 

76.  Muòvere,  move,  movendo,  mòssi,  mòsso. 
TJ.  Nàscere,  be  born,  nàcqui,  nàto. 

78.  Nascóndere,  hide,  nascósi,  nascósto. 

79.  Negligere  {see  5,  Gli),  neglect,  neglessi,  negletto. 

80.  Offendere,  offend,  offesi,  offéso. 

81.  Osténdere,  show.     Defective.     Rare. 

82.  Percipere,  perceive,  percétto.     Defective.     Rare. 

83.  Perdere,  lose,  perdei  or  perdetti  or  persi,  perduto  or  pèrso. 

84.  Piòvere,  rain,  piòvve  (piove),  piovuto.     Impersonai. 

85.  Pòrgere,  present,  pòrsi,  pòrto. 

86.  Prediligere,  prefer,  predilessi,  predilètto. 

87.  Prèndere,  take,  presi,  prèso. 

88.  Protèggere,  protect,  protèssi,  protètto. 

89.  Ràdere,  shave,  rasi  (radei),  raso. 

90.  Redimere,  redeem,  redènsi  (rediméi),  redènto. 

91.  Règgere,  support,  rèssi,  rètto. 

92.  Rèndere,  render,  rési  (rendei  or  rendetti),  réso  (fenduto). 

93.  Ridere,  laugh,  risi,  riso. 

94.  Riflèttere,  reflect,  riflettei  or  riflèssi,  riflettuto  or  riflèsso.    Riflèt- 

tere, ''to  reflect  light,''''  is  generally  irregular -,  riflèttere,  "-to 
meditate^''  is  usually  regular. 

95.  Rifùlgere,  shine,  rifùlsi.     Past  part,  lacking.     Poetical. 

96.  Rilucere,  shine,  rilùssi  or  rilucéi.     Past  part,  lacking. 

97.  Rispóndere,  answer,  rispósi,  rispósto. 

98.  Ródere,  ^««w,  rósi,  róso. 

99.  Rompere,  break,  ruppi,  rótto. 
100.  Scéndere,  descend,  scési,  scéso. 

IDI.  Scindere,  sever,  scindei  or  scissi,  scisso. 

102.  Sciòlvere,  breakfast,  sciòlsi  or  sciolvètti,  sciòlto.     Rare. 

103.  Scòrgere,  perceive,  scòrsi,  scòrto. 

104.  Scrivere,  write,  scrissi,  scritto. 

105.  Scuòtere,  shake,  scotèndo,  scòssi,  scòsso.* 

106.  Soffólcere,  support,  soffólse,  soffólto.     Defective.    Rare. 

107.  Solvere,  undo,  solvei  (solvetti),  soluto.      Poetical.      So  dissòl- 

vere ;  for  assòlvere  and  risòlvere  {determine) ,  see  ^i. 

108.  Sórgere,  rise,  sórsi,  sórto. 

*  See  page  94,  footnote. 


go  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

109.  Sospendere,  sìispend,  sospési,  sospéso.     So  appendere,  impén- 

dere  ;  pendere  is  reg.,  dipèndere  either  reg.  or  irreg. 

110.  Spàndere,  spili,  spandéi  or  spandétti,  spanto. 

111.  Spàrgere,  scatter,  spàrsi,  spàrso  or  sparto. 

112.  Spèndere,  spend,  spési,  spéso. 

113.  Spèrgere,  disperse,  spèrsi,  spérso.    Rare. 

1 14.  Spòrgere,  project,  spòrsi,  spòrto. 

115.  Strùggere,  melt,  strùssi,  strùtto. 

1 16.  Succèdere,  happeti,  succèssi  or  succedei,  succèsso  or  succeduto. 

So  concedere,  which  has  also  concedetti;  cèdere  audits  other 
compounds  are  generally  regular. 

117.  Sùggere,  suck,  suggéi  or  sussi.     Past  part,  lacking.     Rare. 

118.  Tèndere  {transitive^,  extend,  tési,  téso.     The  intrans,  verb  is 

reg.,  but  has  no  past  participle. 

119.  Tèrgere,  wipe,  tèrsi  or  tergéi,  tèrso.    Rare. 

120.  Tòrcere,  twist,  tòrsi,  tòrto. 

121.  Uccidere,  kill,  uccisi,  ucciso. 

122.  Vincere,  conquer,  vinsi,  vinto. 

123.  Vivere,  live,  vissi,  vissuto  or  vivùto  ;  viverò  or  vivrò. 

124.  Vòlgere,  turn,  volsi,  vòlto. 

125.  Vói  vere,  ^«r/2,  volsi,  vòlto.    Rare.    TìtvòìvtxQ.  has  a  past  part, 

devoluto. 

PRESENT   IRREGULAR. 

126.  Èssere,  be,  fui,  stato;  sarò.     6V(?  53,  a.* 

127.  Bére  or  bévere,  drink,  bevendo,  bévvi  (bevétti  ^r  bevéi),  be- 

vuto (beùto)  ;  berò  or  beverò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Bévo  or  beo,      beviamo  or  beiamo,  Béva  or  bea,       beviamo  or  beiamo, 

bévi   or  bèi,        bevete     or  beéte,  béva  or  bea,       beviate    or  beiate, 

béve  or  bée,       bévono   or  béono.  béva  or  bea,       bévano    or  beano. 

*  In  the  imperfect  indicative  èramo  is  often  used  for  eravamo.  We  find  in 
poetry  :  séte  for  siete  ;  énno  or  en  for  sano  (third  plur.)  ;  sie  for  sia  ;  erdmo, 
erdte  for  eravamo,  eravate;  u  for  0  in  the  preterite  and  imperfect  subjunc- 
tive; fòro  {ox  furono  ;  fia,  fiano  ox  fieno,  for  sarà,  saranno;  fora,  forano 
for  sarei,  sarebbe,  sarebbero;  scudo  for  essendo  ;  sùto,  essùto,  or  issùto  for  stdto. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS.  97 

128.  Chiedere,  ask,  chièsi  (chièsi  or  chiedéi),  chiesto. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Chièdo  (chièggo),*  Chièda  (chiègga),* 

chièdi,  chièda  (chiègga), 

chiède,  chièda  (chiègga), 

chiediamo,  chiediamo, 

chiedete,  chiediate, 

chièdono  (chièggono).*  chièdano  (chièggano) .* 

129.  Condurre,  ì:^;z^z^^/,  conducéndo,  condussi,  condótto  ;  condurrò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Conddco,         conduciamo,  Conddca,         conduciamo, 

condtìci,  conducete,  conddca,          conduciate, 

conddce,         conducono.  condàca,         conddcano. 

130.  Nuòcere,  harm,  nocéndo,  nòcqui,  nociuto. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Nuoco  or  noccio,  nociamo,  Nuoca  or  noccia,  nociamo, 

nuoci,  nocete,  nuoca  crnoccia,  nociate, 

nuoce,  nuocono  <?;' nocciono.    nuoca  smoccia,  nuocano  smocciano. 

131.  Pórre, /«/,  ponendo,  pósi,  pósto  ;  porrò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Póngo,     poniamo  (ponghiàmo),  Pónga,     poniamo  (ponghiàmo), 

póni,        ponete,  pónga,     poniate, 

póne,       póngono.  pónga,     póngano. 

132.  Trarre  (tràere),  drag,  traendo,  trassi,  tratto;  trarrò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Traggo,  traiamo  or  traggiàmo,t     Tragga,     traiamo  or  traggiàmo,t 

trai  (tràggi),      traete,  tragga,       traiate, 

trae  (tràgge),    traggono.  tragga,      traggano. 

133.  Veliere  (vérre),  tear  up,  vélsi,  vélto  ;  veliero  (verrò  or  velgerò). 

Veliere,  which  is  rare,  has  not  all  the  forms  given  here  ;  but 
its  compound,  svellere,  has  them  all. 

*  Also  chieggio,  chieggiono,  chieggia,  chieggiano.  \  Also  tragghidmo. 


98  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

YèWo  or  \e\go,    velliamo  (velgiamo),       Velia  or  vèlga,   velliàmo  (velgiàmo), 
velli  (velgi),       velléte,  vèlia  or  velga,    velliàte  (velgiàte), 

vèlie  (velge),     vellono  or  velgono.         velia  or  velga,   vèllano  or  vèlgano. 

134.  Cògliere  {corre), gather,  còlsi,  còlto;  coglierò  or  corrò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Còlgo  (còglie),  cogliamo  (colghiàmo),   Còlga  (cóglia),  cogliamo  (colghiàmo), 

cògli,  cogliete,  còlga  (coglia),  cogliàte, 

còglie,  còlgono  (cogliono).       còlga  (cóglia),  còlgano  (cògliano). 

135.  Scégliere  (scérre),  choose:  like  cògliere  (134). 

136.  Sciògliere  (sciòrre),  untie:  like  cògliere  (134). 

137.  Tògliere  (tórre),  take:  like  cògliere  (134). 

138.  Giùngere   (giùgnere),    to   arrive ^   giùnsi,   giùnto  ;     giungerò 

(giugnerò). 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Gidngo  (gi tigno),  Gidnga  (giàgna), 

gidngi  (giàgni),  giónga  (giàgna), 

giùnge  (giógne),  giùnga  (gidgna), 

giungiamo  (giugniàmo),  giungiamo  (gi ugniamo), 

giungete  (giugnéte),  giungiate  (gi ugniate), 

giùngono  (gidgnono).  giùngano  (gidgnano). 

139.  Cingere  (cignere),  ^Vtì?:  //^<?  giùngere  (138). 

140.  Mùgnere  (mùngere),  milk:  //-^<?  giùngere  (138). 

141.  Piàngere  (piagnere),  weep:  /z,^^  giùngere  (138). 

142.  Fingere  {pigntro) ,  paint  :  /z^(?  giùngere  (138). 

143.  Pùngere  (pùgnere) ,  ^rz^/è  ;  /z/è<?  giùngere  (138). 

144.  Spègnere  (spéngere),  extinguish:  like  giùngere  (138),  except 

that  the  forms  with  gn  are  as  common  as  those  with  ng. 

145.  Spingere  (spìgnere) ,  ^z/j--^  :  /z>t^  giùngere  (138). 

146.  Stringere  (strignere),  bÌ7id:  like  giùngere  (138),  except  that  the 

p.p.  is  strétto  or  strinto.     Costringere  has  only  costretto. 

147.  Tingere  (tignere),  dye:  like  giùngere  (138). 
143.   Ùngere  (ùgnere),  ^«czVz/ ;  /zX'^  giùngere  (138). 


IRREGULAR    VERBS.  99 

FOURTH   CONJUGATION. 

PRESENT    REGULAR. 

149.  Aprire,  open^  aprii  or  apersi,  apèrto.     Pres.  apro,  etc. 

150.  Coprire  (cuoprìre),  cover,  coprii  or  copersi,  copèrto.     Pres, 

copro  (cuópro),  etc. 

151.  Offrire  (offerire),  offer ^  offrii  (offerii)  or  offersi,  offèrto.     Pres. 

offro  (offerisco),  etc. 

152.  Soffrire,  suffer  :  like  offrire  (151). 

153.  Convertire,  convert^  convertii  or  convèrsi,  convertito  or  con- 

vèrso.   Pres.  converto  or  convertisco,  etc.     All  other  verbs 
in  -vertire  are  reg. 

154.  Costruire  (construire),  construct,  co(n)strùssi  or  co(n)struii, 

co(n)struito  or  co(n) strùtto.     Pres.  co(n)struisco,  etc. 

155.  Digerire,  digest,  digerii,  digerito  (digèsto).    /V<?j.  digerisco,  ^/^. 

156.  Esaurire,  exhaust,   esaurii,   esaurito  or  esàusto.     Pres.  esau- 

risco, etc. 

157.  Seppellire  or  sepellire,  bury,  sep(p)ellii,  seppellito  or  sepólto. 

Pres.  sep(p)ellisco,  etc. 

PRESENT    IRREGULAR. 

158.  Cucire,  sew,  cucii,  cucito.     Pres.  cucio  or  cucisco.     This  verb 

inserts  i  before  o  and  a,  bid  not  before  e  and  i. 

159.  Sdrucire  or  sdruscire,  rip:  like  cucire  (158). 

160.  Empire  or  empiere,  fill,  empiendo,  empii,  empito.    All  but  the 

present  from  the  stem  of  empire.     So  compire  or  compiere, 
which  has  also  a  past  part,  compiuto. 

PRES.    IND.  PRES.    SUBJ. 

Émpio  (empisco),     empiamo,  Émpia,  empiamo, 

émpi  (empisci),        empite,  émpia,  empiate, 

émpie  (empisce),      empiono  (empiscono).  émpia,  empiano. 

161.  Morire,  die,  morii,  mòrto  ;  morrò  or  morirò. 

PRES.    IND.  PRES.    SUBJ. 

Muoio  (muoro) ,  moriamo  or  muoiàmo,     Muoia  (muora) ,  moriamo  or  muoiàmo, 

muori  or  muoi,    morite,  muoia  (muora),  muoiàte, 

muore,  muoiono  (muorono).      muoia  (muora),  muoiano  (muorano).* 

*  In  ali  forms  where  uo  occurs,  it  may  be  replaced  by  0. 


lOO  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

162.  Seguire,  follow,  seguii,  seguito.     Pres.  seguo,  gU.     The  verb  is 

generally  regular  ;  but  the  é  may  be  changed  to  ié  in  all  forms 
where  it  is  accented.    Proseguire  has  -seguo  or  -seguisco. 

163.  Sparire,  disappear,  sparii  or  sparvi,  sparito.     Pres.  {regular^ 

sparisco,  etc.  Apparire  has  apparvi  or  -si  or  -fi,  apparito  or 
apparso  ;  comparire  has  comparvi  or  -si  or  -ii,  comparso  ; 
otherwise  they  are  like  sparire,  but  they  have  in  the  present 
the  additional  forms  :  -pàio,  -pare,  -paiono;  -paia,  -paiano. 

164.  Dire,  say,  dicendo,  dissi,  détto  ;  dirò.     Dire  {formerly  dicere) 
belongs  really  to  the  third  conjugation  :  dicésti,  -èva,  -èssi. 


PRES.  IND. 

IMPER. 

PRES. 

SUBJ. 

Dico,                    diciamo, 

Di', 

Dica, 

diciamo, 

dici,                      dite, 

diciamo, 

dica, 

diciate. 

dice,                     dicono. 

dite. 

dica, 

dicano. 

165.  Salire,  ascend,  salii  or  salsi,  salito. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Salgo  (sali'sco),    saliamo  (?r  sagliàmo,*  Salga  (salisca),    saliamo  ^r  sagliàmo,* 

sali  (salisci),       salite,  salga  (salisca),    sagliàte, 

sale  (salisce),       salgono  (saliscono).  salga  (salisca),    salgano  (saliscano). 

166.  Venire,  come,  venni,  venuto;  verrò. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  SUBJ. 

Vengo  (vegno),   veniamo,*  Venga  (vegna),   veniamo,* 

vieni,  venite,  venga  (vegna),   veniate, 

viene,  vengono  (vègnono).      venga  (vegna),   vengano  (vegnano). 

167.  Udire,  hear,  udii,  udito;  udirò  (udrò). 


PRES.    IND. 

Odo,                      udiamo. 

PRES.    SUBJ. 

Oda,                     udiamo, 

odi,                       udite, 
ode,                      odono. 

oda,                      udiate, 
oda,                     odano. 

168.  Uscire  (escire),  go  out,  uscii,  uscito. 

PRES.  IND.  ^          PRES.  SUBJ. 

Esco,  usciamo.                           Esca,                    usciamo, 

esci,  uscite,                               8sca,                     usciate, 

esce,  escono.                            6sca,                    escano. 

169.  Orire,  be  born,  òrto.     Defective.     Rare. 

i  *  Also  salghiàmo  ;  venghiàmo  '  popular  forms. 


IRREGULAR   AND    DEFECTIVE    VERBS.  lOI 


ALPHABETICAL   LIST   OF    IRREGULAR   AND 
DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

93.  Every  irregular  verb  in  this  list  is  followed  by  a 
number  referring  to  the  table  of  Irregular  Verbs  arranged 
according  to  Conjugation.  Obsolete  defective  verbs  that 
present  no  irregularity  have  not  been  mentioned. 

a.  Compound  verbs  have,  in  general,  been  excluded  from  this 
list,  unless  they  differ  in  conjugation  from  the  simple  verbs  from 
which  they  come  (see  67,  a).  The  commonest  prefixes  are  :  a- 
(corresponding  in  meaning  to  the  preposition  a)  \  as-  (=  Latin 
abs-^  ;  CO-,  cofn-,  con-,  cor-  (=  prep,  con)  ;  contra-  (=  prep. 
contra)  ;  de-^  di-  (=  Lat.  de-)  ;  dis-  (=  Lat.  dis-)  ;  e-,  es-  (=  Lat. 
ex)  ;  /■-,  im-,  in-,  ir-  (=  prep,  in)  ;  o-  {=  Lat.  ob)  ;  per-  (=  prep. 
per);  pre-  (=Lat.  prae-)  \  pro-  (=Lat.  pro-)  \  r-,  re-,  ri- 
(=  Lat.  re-)  ;  j-  (=  Lat.  ex-  or  dis-)  ;  so-,  sos-,  su-  (=  Lat.  sub)  ; 
sopra-,  sopr-,  sor-  (=  prep,  sópra)  ;  sott-,  sotto-  (=  prep,  sótto)  ; 
stra-  (=  Lat.  extra)  ;  tra-  (=  prep.  tra).  After  several  of  these 
prefixes  the  initial  consonant  of  the  simple  verb  is  generally  found 
doubled  :  a  -\-  cadére  =  accadere.  S-  is  sometimes  combined  with 
con-,  r-  with  a-  or  in-  :  scoscéndere,  raccògliere,  rincórrere. 

Accadere,  see  cadére,  7.  Andare,  i. 

Accendere,  24.  Annèttere,  see  connèttere,  36. 

Acclàdere,  see  chiddere,  34.  Antepórre,  see  pórre,  131. 

Accorgere,  see  scorgere,  103.  Antivedére,    /./.    only   antiveddto. 
Acquisire  has  only  acquisi'to.  otherwise  like  vedére,  io. 

Addurre,  see  condurre,  129.  Apparire,  see  sparire,  163. 

Affliggere,  25.  Appartenére,  see  tenére,  17. 

Algere,  26.  Appèndere,  see  sospèndere,  109. 

Allùdere,  27.  Aprire,  149. 

Ancldere,  see  uccidere,  121.  Ardere,  28. 


102 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Arrògere,  29. 

Ascéndere,  see  scéndere,  100. 

Asciolvere,  see  sciolvere,  102. 

Ascóndere,  see  nascóndere,  78. 

Aspergere,  see  spergere,  113. 

Assalire,  see  salire,  165. 

Assidere,  30. 

Assistere,  see  esistere,  54. 

Assòlvere,  31. 

Assòrbere,  32. 

Assdmere,  see  constìmere,  39. 

Avèllere,  t^^. 

Avere,  5. 

Bére,  127. 

Bévere,  see  bére,  127. 

Cadére,  7. 

Calére,  23. 

Cèdere,  generally  reg.,  sometimes  has 

pret.  cessi,  p.p.  cesso. 
Chiedere,  128. 
Chiddere,  34. 
Cignere,  see  cfngere,  139. 
Cingere,  139. 

Circoncidere,  see  decidere,  44. 
Cogliere,  134. 

Coincìdere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p. 
Colere,  35. 

Collidere,  see  Iddere,  71. 
Comparire,  see  sparire,  163. 
Competere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p. 
Compiere,  see  empire,  160. 
Compire,  see  empire,  160. 
Comprimere,  see  esprimere,  57. 
Concedere,  see  succedere,  116. 
Conclddere,  see  chiddere,  34. 
Concdtere,  see  discdtere,  47. 
Conddrre,  129. 
Connettere,  36. 
Conóscere,  37. 
Conquidere,  38, 


Consistere,  see  esistere,  54. 

Constare  is  reg. 

Construire,  see  costruire,  154. 

Consdmere,  39. 

Contèndere,  see  tèndere,  118. 

Contrastare  is  reg. 

Controvèrtere,  see  Vèrtere. 

Contdndere,  40. 

Convèrgere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p. 

Convertire,  153. 

Coprire,  150. 

Corre,  see  cogliere,  134. 

Córrere,  41. 

Corrispóndere,  see  rispóndere,  97 

Cospàrgere,  see  spàrgere,  iii. 

Cospèrgere,  see  spergere,  113. 

Costruire,  154. 

Créscere,  42. 

Cucire,  158. 

Cuocere,  43. 

Cuoprire,  see  coprire,  150. 

Dare,  3. 

Decidere,  44. 

Deddrre,  see  conddrre,  129. 

Delinquere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p.,  anà 

its  pret.,  delinquetti,  is  rare. 
Deprimere,  see  esprimere,  57. 
Desistere,  see  esistere,  54. 
Devòlvere,  see  vòlvere,  125. 
Difèndere,  45. 
Digerire,  155. 

Dipèndere,  see  sospèndere,  109. 
Dire,  164. 
Dirigere,  46. 

Dirimere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p. 
Discéndere,  see  scéndere,  100. 
Discdtere,  47. 

Dispèrgere,  see  spergere,  113. 
Dissolvere,  see  solvere,  107. 
Dissuadere,  see  persuadére,  22. 


IRREGULAR    AND    DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 


103 


Distare,  reg.  in  pres.  of  all  moodsy  no 
pres.  p.,  otherwise  like  stare,  4. 

Distinguere,  48. 

Distrùggere,  see  strùggere,  il 5. 

Divedére,  has  nothing  but  injin. 

Divergere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p. 

Dividere,  49. 

Dolere,  15. 

Dovére,  8. 

Eleggere,  see  lèggere,  69. 

Elidere,  50. 

Elùdere,  51. 

Empiere,  see  empire,  160. 

Empire,  160. 

Èrgere,  52. 

Erigere,  see  dirigere,  46. 

Esaurire,  156. 

Escire,  see  uscire,  168. 

Esclùdere,  see  chiùdere,  34. 

Esigere,  53. 

Esimere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p. 

Esistere,  54. 

Espèllere,  55. 

Esplodere,  56. 

Esprimere,  57. 

Èssere,  126. 

Estinguere,  see  distinguere,  48. 

Evàdere,  see  invàdere,  67. 

Fare,  2. 

Fèndere,  58. 

Fervere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p.,  and  is 
rare  except  in  the  third  per s.  of  the 
pres.  and  imp.  ind. 

Fi'gere,  see  figgere,  59. 

Figgere,  59. 

Fingere,  60. 

Fóndere,  61. 

Fràngere,  62. 

Friggere,  63. 

Genuflèttere,  64. 


Giacere,  11. 

Gire,  defect.  :  pres.  giamo,  gite  ;   imp. 

giva   or   già,   etc.;    imper.   giamo, 

gite;  pres.  subj.  giamo,  giàte;   no 

pres.  p.  ;  rest  reg. 
Giùgnere,  see  giùngere,  138. 
Giùngere,  138. 
Illùdere,  see  lùdere,  71. 
Impèllere,  see  espèllere,  55. 
Impèndere,  see  sospèndere,  109. 
Imprimere,  see  esprimere,  57. 
Incidere,  see  decidere,  44. 
Inelùdere,  see  chiùdere,  34. 
Incùtere,  see  discùtere,  47. 
Indurre,  see  condurre,  129. 
Insistere,  see  esistere,  54. 
Instare  is  reg. 

Instruire,  see  construire,  154. 
Intèndere,  see  tèndere,  118. 
Intercédere,  see  succèdere,  1 16. 
Intridere,  65. 

Introdurre,  see  condurre,  129. 
Intrudere,  66. 
Invàdere,  67. 
Invalére,  p.p.  only  invalso,  oikerwist 

like  valére,  18. 
Ire,  defect.  :  pres.  ite;   imp.  iva,  etc.  ; 

pret.   isti,    iste,   irò;    fut.    iremo, 

irete,    iranno;     imper.    ite;     imp. 

subj.  isse,  iste,  isserò;  p.p.  ito. 
Istruire,  see  costruire,  154. 
Lécere,  see  licere,  70. 
Lèdere,  68. 
Lèggere,  69. 
Licere,  70. 

Lucere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p. 
Lùdere,  71. 

Mantenére,  see  tenére,  17. 
Mèrgere,  72. 
Méttere,  73. 


i04 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Molcere,  74. 

Mordere,  75. 

Morire,  161. 

Mdgnere,  140. 

Mùngere,  see  mdgnere,  140. 

Muovere,  76. 

Nàscere,  77. 

Nascóndere,  78. 

Negligere,  79. 

Nuocere,  130. 

Offendere,  80. 

Offerire,  see  offrire,  151. 

Offrire,  151. 

Opprimere,  see  esprimere,  57. 

Orire,  169. 

Ostare  is  reg. 

Ostèndere,  81. 

Parére,  20. 

Percipere,  82. 

Percuòtere,  see  scuotere,  105. 

Perdere,  83. 

Permanére,  see  rimanére,  16. 

Persistere,  see  esìstere,  54. 

Persuadére,  22. 

Piacére,  12. 

Piagnere,  see  piàngere,  141. 

Piàngere,  141. 

Pi'gnere,  see  pfngere,  142. 

Pmgere,  142. 

Piovere,  84. 

Porgere,  85. 

Pórre,  131. 

Pospórre,  see  pórre,  131. 

Possedére,  see  sedére,  9. 

Potére,  21. 

Precidere,  see  decidere,  44. 

Preclùdere,  see  chiddere,  34. 

Prediligere,  86. 

Premere  is  reg. 

Prèndere,  87. 


Prestare  is  reg. 

Presùmere,  see  consdmere,  39. 

Prevedére,  see  vedére,  io. 

Proddrre,  see  conddrre,  129. 

Proteggere,  88. 

Provvedére,  fut.   ana  cond.   uncon» 

traded,  otherwise  like  vedére,  io. 
Prddere,  reg.  verb,  has  no  P-p.,  and  i\ 

used  only  in  the  third  pers, 
Pdgnere,  see  pdngere,  143. 
Pdngere,  143. 

Raccogliere,  see  cogliere,  134. 
Ràdere,  89. 

Raggidngere,  see  gidngere,  138. 
Recidere,  see  decidere,  44. 
Redimere,  90. 
Reggere,  91. 
Rèndere,  92. 

Repèllere,  see  espèllere,  55. 
Reprimere,  see  esprimere,  57. 
Resistere,  see  esistere,  54. 
Restare  is  reg. 
Ridere,  93. 

Riddrre,  see  conddrre,  129. 
Riflèttere,  94. 
Rifdlgere,  95. 
Rildcere,  96. 
Rimanére,  16. 

Risolvere  (^dissolve'),  see  solvere,  107. 
'R\sò\vtxe{determine),seeQS?,ò\yete,'^l 
Rispóndere,  97. 
Ristare,  see  stare,  4. 
Risdmere,  see  consdmere,  39. 
Ródere,  98. 
Rompere,  99. 
Salire,  165. 
Sapere,  6. 
Scégliere,  135. 
Scéndere,  100. 
Scérre,  see  scégliere,  135. 


IRREGULAR    AND    DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 


105 


Scfndere,  101 

Sciogliere,  136. 

Sciolvere,  102. 

Sciorre,  see  sciogliere,  136. 

Scomméttere,  see  méttere,  73. 

Scoprire,  see  coprire,  150. 

Scorgere,  103. 

Scrivere,  104. 

Scuòtere,  105. 

Sdrucire,  159. 

Sdruscire,  see  sdrucire,  159. 

Sedére,  9. 

Sedurre,  see  conddrre,  129. 

Seguire,  162. 

Sepellire,  see  seppellire,  157. 

Seppellire,  157. 

SofFeri're,  see  soffrire,  152. 

Soffólcere,  106. 

Soffrire,  152. 

Solére,  14. 

Solvere,  107. 

Sopprimere,  see  esprimere,  57. 

Soprastare,  see  stare,  4. 

Sórgere,  108. 

Sospèndere,  109. 

Sostare  is  reg. 

Sottostare,  see  stare,  4. 

Sovrastare,  see  stare,  4, 

Spàndere,  no. 

Spàrgere,  ni. 

Sparire,  163. 

Spegnere,  144. 

Spendere,  112. 

Spengere,  see  spegnere,  144. 

Spérgere,  113. 

Spignere,  see  spingere,  145. 

Spingere,  145^ 

Sporgere,  114. 

Stare,  4. 

Stridere»  reg.  verb,  has  no  p.p. 


Strignere,  see  stringere,  146. 

Stringere,  146. 

Strùggere,  115. 

Subire  is  reg.  :  pres.  subfsco. 

Succèdere,  116. 

Stìggere,  117. 

Sussistere,  see  esistere,  54. 

Svèllere,  see  veliere,  133. 

Tacére,  13. 

Tèndere  {trans.),  118.  [/./. 

Tèndere  (intrans.),  reg.  verb,  has  no 

Tenére,  17. 

Tèrgere,  119. 

Tignere,  see  tingere,  147. 

Tingere,  147. 

Togliere,  137. 

Torcere,  120. 

Torre,  see  togliere,  137. 

Tradurre,  see  conddrre,  129. 

Tràere,  see  trarre,  132. 

Transigere,  see  esigere,  53. 

Trarre,  132. 

Uccidere,  121. 

Udire,  167. 

Ugnere,  see  dngere,  148. 

Ùngere,  148. 

Uscire,  168. 

Valére,  18. 

Vedére,  io. 

Veliere,  133. 

Venire,  166. 

Vèrre,  see  veliere,  133. 

Vèrtere,  reg.  verb,  is  used  only  in  tht 

pres.  and  imp. 
Vilipèndere,  see  sospèndere,  109. 
Vincere,  122. 
Vivere,  123. 
Volére,  19. 
Vòlgere,  124. 
Vòlvere,  125. 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH     VOCABULARY. 


107 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


A,  to,  at,  in. 

A',  ài,  al,  etc.  =  a  +  art. 

Abbellito,  beautified. 

Accompagnare,  accompany. 

Accorgersi,  perceive. 

Acqua,  water. 

Ad,  see  A. 

Affacciarsi,  place  one's  self  {at  a 

window). 
Affrettare,  hasten. 
Agguantare,  seize. 
Agostino,  Gus. 
Àlbero,  tree. 
Ale,  wing. 
Alétta,  little  wing. 
Alettlna,  little  wing. 
Alfredo,  Alfred. 
Allontanare,  send  oflf. 
Allóra,  then. 
Altro,  other. 
Amaro,  bitter. 
Anche,  also,  even. 
Andar,  see  Andare. 
Andare,  go,  to  go,  going. 
Andarsene,  go  away. 
Andato,  gone. 
Anello,  ring. 
Animale,  animal. 
Ammalino,  little  creature. 
Antico,  old. 
Ape,  bee. 
Appéna,  hardly. 


Appósta,  on  purpose. 
Aria,  air. 

Arricchito,  enriched. 
Arrivare,  arrive. 
Arrivato,  having  arrived. 
Asino,  ass. 
Assalire,  attack. 
Assènzio,  wormwood. 
Assoliito,  absolute. 
Attimo,  flash. 
Avanti  a,  in  front  of. 
Avere,  have. 
Avvedérsi  di,  perceive. 
Azionacela,  froiti  Azióne. 
Azióne,  action. 
Babbo,  father,  papa. 
Badare,  keep. 
Bagnare,  bathe. 
Bambino,  child. 
Bàrbaro,  barbarian. 
Barbóne,  water-spaniel. 
Baróne,  baron. 
Bastóne,  stick. 
Bel,  see  Bèllo. 
Bellissimo,  very  beautiful. 
Bèllo,  beautiful,  fine,  kind. 
Ben,  see  Bène. 
Bène,  well,  nicely,  much. 
Bène,  good  {noun). 
Bócca,  mouth. 
Bòve,  ox. 
Bravo,  worthy. 


L08 

Brillare,  shine. 

Brutto,  ugly. 

Bucato,  pricked. 

Bugia,  lie. 

Bùio,  dark. 

Buòno,  good. 

Buttare,   throw.      Buttar  giù  = 

swallow. 
Cadére,  fall. 
Calzóni,  trousers. 
Can,  see  Cane. 
Cane,  dog, 
Capace,  capable. 
Capo,  head.     Da  cdpo,  daccapo  = 

once  more. 
Cappèllo,  hat. 
Carlomagno,  Charlemagne. 
Carne,  flesh. 
Casa,  house,  home. 
Cascare,  fall. 
Cassétta,  drawer. 
Cassettóne,  bureau. 
Castèllo,  castle. 
Cattivo,  bad,  naughty. 
Célia,  trick. 
Cento,  a  hundred. 
Cercare,  search. 
Cèrto,  certain,  some. 
Cespu^io,  bush. 
Che,  who,  which,  that. 
Che,  what.     Che  còsa  -  what. 
Che,  that. 
Che,  than. 

Chi  .  .  .  chi,  one  .  .  .  another. 
Chiamare,  call. 
Chicca,  sweetmeat. 
Ci,  there. 
Cinque,  five. 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Città,  city. 

Cittadino,  citizen. 

Coda,  tail. 

Cògli,  col,  etc.  —  con  +  art. 

Cògliere,  catch,  pick. 

Còllo,  neck. 

Cóme,  as,  like,  how,  when. 

Cominciare,  begin. 

Comméttere,  commit. 

Compagno,  companion. 

Comune,  town.      Comuni  =  cova.- 
mons. 

Con,  with. 

Confètti,  candy. 

Conóscere,  know,  find  out. 

Cónte,  count. 

Continovaménte,  continually. 

Continuo,  continual. 

Cónto,  count. 

Còrpo,  body. 

Corrèggersi,  reform. 

Còsa,  th ing.    Còsa  pùbblica  =  gov- 
ernment. 

Così,  so,  thus. 

Creatura,  creature. 

Crédere,  believe. 

Cui,  whom,  whose. 

Curiosità,  curiosity. 

Curióso,  curious,  funny. 

Da,  by,  from,  as  to.    Ddtle  pdrti 
=  at  the  sides. 

Daccapo,  see  Capo. 

Dai,  dal,  etc.  =  da  +  art. 

Dare,  give,  look. 

De',  degli,  dèi,  del,  etc.  =  di  4-  art 

Desidèrio,  desire. 

Détto,  said,  told. 

Di,  of,  than,  to,  with. 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH    V0;:ABULARY. 


109 


Dicèrto,  surely. 

Di  dietro,  from  behind. 

Dièci,  ten. 

Diètro,  behind,  after.   Di  diètro  = 

from  behind.     Diètro  a  =  after. 
Dintórni,  neighborhood. 
Dio,  God. 
D£re,  say,  speak. 
Diritto,  right. 
Discórso,  talk. 
Disobbediénte,  disobedient. 
Disperato,  desperate. 
Distanza,  distance. 
Distrùggere,  destroy. 
Disubbidiènte,  disobedient. 
Ditlno,  from  Dito. 
Dito,  finger.    Dito  gròsso  =  thumb. 
Diventare,  become. 
Dódici,  twelve. 
Dolóre,  pain. 
Dòpo,  after. 
Dóve,  where. 
Dovére,  ought,  must. 
Due,  two. 
Dùnque,  therefore. 
Durante,  during. 
E,  and. 
Ecco,  this  is. 
Ed,  and. 
Enrico,  Henry. 
Èssa,  it. 
Esse,  them. 
Èssere,    be.      Èssere    per  =  be 

about  to. 
Èssi,  them. 
Esso,  it. 
Fallo,  fault. 
Fanciullo,  child. 


Fare,  make,  let. 

Farfalla,  butterfly. 

Fasciare,  bandage. 

Fèrro,  iron. 

Figliuòlo,  child,  son. 

Figurarsi,  imagine. 

Finché  non,  until. 

Finèstra,  window. 

Finire,  finish. 

Fino  a,  up  to. 

Fióre,  flower. 

Fiorito,  flowery. 

Firenze,  Florence. 

Firmaménto,  firmament. 

Fòglia,  leaf. 

Fónte,  fountain. 

Forestièro,  foreign. 

Fra,  between,  in,  to. 

Fréddo,  cold. 

Frónte,  forehead. 

Frutto,  fruit. 

Fuggire,  flee. 

Fuòri,  out. 

Fùria,  haste. 

Gamba,  leg. 

Gambo,  stem. 

Gatto,  cat. 

Genitóri,  parents.  ' 

Già,  already.  \ 

Giardino,  garden. 

Giglio,  lily. 

Giorgétto,  Geòrgie. 

Giórno,  day. 

Girar,  see  Girare. 

Girare,  go  around. 

Girato,  gone  around. 

Giro,  turn,  circuit. 

Giro  giro  a,  round  and  round. 


no 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Giù,  down. 

Giudizio,  judgment,  idea. 

Gli,  the. 

Gli,  it. 

Gli,  to  him. 

Glie,  see  Gli,  Le. 

Glòbo,  globe. 

Golóso,  glutton,  greedy. 

Governato,  governed. 

Grande,  big. 

Grandissimo,  very  big. 

Grido,  shout. 

Gròsso,  big. 

Guardarsi,  refrain. 

I,  the. 

II,  the. 

Illuminato,  illumined. 
Il  quale,  who. 
Imperatóre,  emperor. 
Impèro,  empire. 

In,  in. 

Infatti,  in  fact. 
Infinitamente,  infinitely. 
Infìno,  even. 
Infocato,  blazing. 
ingordigia,  gluttony. 
Insegnare,  teach. 
Insètto,  insect. 
Insième,  together. 
Insomma,  in  short. 
Intendiménto,  intelligence. 
Intórno,  around  {adv.). 
Intórno  a,  around  {prep.). 
Invasiòne,  invasion. 
Ispirare,  inspire. 
L',  see  La,  Le,  Lo. 
La,  the. 
Iia,  it,  her. 


Là,  there.     Di  là  =  there. 

Lacerare,  tear. 

Ladra,  thief. 

Ladro,  robber. 

Lampo,  flash. 

Lancétta,  hand. 

Lasciare,  leave,  let,  let  go. 

Lasciato,  let. 

Lavorare,  work. 

Le,  the. 

Le,  to  her,  to  it. 

Le,  them. 

Leone,  lion. 

Lèsto,  quick. 

Levare,  take  away.    Levarsi  {with 

direct  object)  —■  get  rid  of. 
Levato,  up. 
Li,  them. 
Li,  there. 
Libero,  free. 
Lo,  the. 
Lo,  him,  it. 

Longobardo,  Longobard. 
Lontano,  distant. 
Lóro,  them,  their. 
Luce,  light. 
Lucèrtola,  lizard. 
Lui,  him,  he. 
Lume,  light. 
Luminóso,  luminous. 
Luna,  moon. 
Ma,  but. 
Madre,  mother. 
Maestóso,  majestic. 
Maèstra,  school-mistress. 
Maèstro,  school-master. 
Màggio,  May. 
Maggióre,  larger. 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH    VOCABULARY. 


Ill 


Mài,  ever.     Non  7ndi=  never. 
Malanno,    harm.     Far   inalanni 

=  mischief-making. 
Malata,  ill. 
Maldicente,  gossip. 
Male,  badly,  ill. 
Male,  wicked. 
Mamma,  mother,  mamma. 
Mandare,  send. 
Mangiare,  eat. 
Manièra,  manner. 
Mano,  hand. 
Mattina,  morning. 
Meno,  less. 
Mento,  chin. 
Méntre,  while. 
Meraviglióso,  wonderful. 
Metà,  half. 
Méttere,  put.     Jlfé^^erst  =  begin, 

put  on. 
Mézzo,  half. 
Mèzzo,  middle.    In  mèzzo  ^  =  in 

the  middle  of. 
Iflicio,  puss,  cat. 
Milióne,  million. 
Minacciare,  threaten. 
Minóre,  smaller. 
Minuto,  minute. 
Mio,  my. 
Mòdo,  way. 
Molestare,  annoy. 
Mólti,  many. 
Mólto,  much. 
Mòrdere,  bite. 
Mósca,  fly. 
Móstra,  face. 
Muro,  wall. 
Mutare,  change. 


Nascósto,  hidden. 

Naso,  nose. 

Nàto,  born. 

Ne,  of  it,  for  it. 

Né,  nor. 

Nei,  nel,  etc.  =  in  -|-  art. 

Nemméno,  even. 

Nessuno,  nobody. 

Niccolino,  Nicholas,  Nick. 

Nido,  nest. 

No,  no.     Di  no=  no. 

Nòbile,  noble. 

Nobiltà,  nobility. 

Nói,  we,  us. 

Nòia,  trouble. 

Non,  not.     Non  .  .  .  che  —  oniye 

Nòstro,  our. 

Nòtte,  night. 

Nòve,  nine. 

Nulla,  nothing. 

Nùmero,  number. 

O,  or. 

O,  oh. 

Òcchio,  eye. 

Occhióne,  frojn  Òcchio. 

Odóre,  odor. 

Ógni,  every. 

Ognuno,  everybody. 

Oltre,  beyond,  over. 

Óra,  now. 

Óra,  houn 

Oramai,  at  last. 

Origine,  origin. 

Òro,  gold. 

Orològio,  watch. 

Òtto,  eight. 

Padroncino,  little  master. 

Palazzo,  palace. 


•  A-'^ 


^c  ^-/t 


112 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Panière,  basket. 

Panierino,  from  Panière. 

Panni,  clothes. 

Parécchio,  some. 

Parére,  seem. 

Parte,  part,  side.     Dalle  pdrti= 

at  the  sides.    A  quésta  parte  = 

to  this  time. 
Participàre,  participate. 
Passo,  step. 
Patto,  condition.    A  patto  che  = 

on  condition  that. 
Pel  =  per  il. 
Pensare,  think. 
Per,  for,  in  order  to,  on  account 

of,  through,  by. 
Perchè,  why,  because. 
Pèrdere,  lose. 
Perdonare,  pardon. 
Permésso,  permission. 
Però,  therefore,  however. 
Pésce,  fish. 
Petto,  chest. 
Piànta,  plant. 
Picchiare,  strike. 
Piccino,  tiny,  small. 
Piccolo,  little,  small. 
Piede,  foot. 
Pièno,  full. 
Pigliare,  take. 
Pinna,  fin. 
Più,  more,  most. 
Po',  little. 
Poi,  then,  too. 
Portare,  take,  bring. 
Potére,  can,  be  able. 
Pòvero,  poor. 
Prèndere,  take. 


Prèsso,  near. 
Prèsto,  early. 
Pretèndere,  expect. 
Prevalére,  prevail. 
Primo,  first. 
Prónto,  quick. 
Pùbblico,  public. 
Punire,  punish. 
Pùnto,  point. 
Quadrùpede,  quadruped. 
Qualche,  some. 
Qualchedùno,  somebody. 
Qualcòsa,  anything. 
Qualcuno,  somebody. 
Quale,  see  II  quale. 
Quando,  when. 
Quanto,  as  much. 
Quattórdici,  fourteen. 
Quattro,  four. 
Que',  quéi,  pi.  of  Quello. 
Quégli,  pi  of  Quello. 
Quel,  see  Quello. 
Quello,  that,  that  one. 
Quésto,  this,  this  one. 
Qui,  here.     Di  qui  =  here. 
Quindi,  therefore. 
Raccontare,  relate. 
Raggiùngere,  overtake. 
Ragióne,  reason. 
Rasente,  close. 
Refezióne,  lunch. 
Règgere,  stand,  endure. 
Respirare,  breathe. 
Rèttile,  reptile. 
Riccardo,  Richard. 
Ricominciare,  begin  again. 
Ricordarsi,  remember. 
Ricreazióne,  recess. 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH    VOCABULARY. 


113 


Ridere,  laugh. 

Riga,  line.    Di  prima  riga  =  first- 
class. 
Righettlna,  little  mark. 
Rimandare,  send  back. 
Rimanére,  remain. 
Rimediare  a,  atone  for. 
Rimproverare,  reprove. 
Ripètere,  repeat. 
Ripòso,  rest. 
Rispóndere,  reply. 
Risputàre,  spit  again. 
Rompere,  break. 
Rósa,  rose. 
Rotóndo,  round. 
Rubare,  steal. 
Sanguinóso,  bloody. 
Sapere,  know,  hear. 
Saporàocio,  from  Sapóre. 
Sapóre,  taste. 
Sasso,  stone. 
Scappare,  run  away. 
Scèna,  scene. 
Scénder,  see  Scéndere. 
Scéndere,  descend. 
Scuòla,  school. 
Se,  if,  whether. 
Se,  see  Si. 

Sé,  itself,  himself,  herself. 
Secóndo  che,  according  as. 
Segnato,  marked. 
Seguire,  turn  out. 
Sèi,  six. 

Sèmpre,  always. 
Senése,  Sienese. 
Sentire,  taste,  hear. 
Sènza,  without. 
Sèrpe,  snake. 


Servitóre,  servant. 

Sessanta,  sixty. 

Sètte,  seven. 

Sfacciatàggine,  impudence. 

Si,  himself,  herself,  itself. 

Si,  yes,  so. 

Signóra,  lady. 

Signóre,  gentleman. 

Signoria,  rule. 

Simile,  like. 

Smisurato,  boundless. 

Soave,  sweet. 

Solamente,  only. 

Sóle,  sun. 

Sollécito,  early,  brisk. 

Sólo,  alone. 

Sommato,  added.  ' 

Sópra,   on,   above.     Di  sópra  ^ 

up,  above. 
Sorèlla,  sister. 
Sorellina,  fro7n  Sorèlla. 
Sòrte,  lucky. 
Sospettare,  suspect. 
Sospètto,  suspicion. 
Sostégno,  support. 
Sótto,  under.     Di  sótto  =  down, 

underneath. 
Sparire,  disappear. 
Spicchio,  slice. 
Spina,  thorn. 
Sputare,  spit. 
Stanza,  room. 
Stare,  stay,  stand. 
Stélla,  star. 
Stésso,  himself. 
Stésso,  same. 
Stésso,  even. 
Stracciare,  tear. 


114 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Strétto,  close,  tight. 

Strillare,  scream. 

Su,  on,  up. 

Su',  sul,  etc.  =  su  +  art. 

Sùbito,  at  once. 

Suo,  its,  his,  her. 

Tanto,  so  much,  so,  much. 

Tanto  . . .  quanto,  both  .  .  .  and. 

Te,  thee,  you. 

Tèmpo,  time. 

Tenuto,  held. 

Tèrra,  earth,  ground,  land. 

Territòrio,  territory. 

Ti,  thee,  you. 

Tirare,  throw,  draw.  Tirar  fuòri, 
take  out. 

Tócco,  one  o'clock. 

Tornare,  return,  returning. 

Tórno  tórno  a,  round  and  round. 

Toscano,  Tuscan. 

Tra,  among,  to. 

Tranquillamente,  tranquilly. 

Tratto  :  a  un  tratto  =  all  at  once. 

Traversare,  cross. 

Tre,  three. 

Trédici,  thirteen. 

Trónco,  trunk. 

Trovare,  find. 

Tu,  thou,  you. 

Tuo,  thy,  your. 

Tutto,  all.  Per  tutto  =  every- 
where. T/itti  e  due—  both  ;  tutti 
e  tre  =  all  three  ;  etc. 

Uccellino,  from  Uccèllo. 

Uccèllo,  bird. 

Un,  a,  one. 


Una,  a,  one. 

Ùndici,  eleven. 

Uno,  a,  one. 

Uòvo,  ^gg. 

Urlare,  yell. 

Ùscio,  door. 

Vassoino,  tray. 

Vedére,  see. 

Ventiquattro,  twenty-four. 

Verità,  truth. 

Véro,  true. 

Véscovo,  bishop. 

Vèspa,  wasp. 

Vestire,  dress. 

Via,  off,  away,  so  forth.     Some* 

times  used  instead  of  a  verb  of 

jnotion. 
Viàggio,  way,  journey. 
Vicino,  near. 
Viola,  violet. 
Viòttola,  path. 
Viso,  face. 
Vispo,  lively. 
Viziaccio,  from  Vizio. 
Vizio,  vice. 
Vóce,  voice. 
Vòglia,  desire. 
Volére,  wish. 

Volontariamente,  voluntarily. 
Vòlta,  time. 
Voltar,  see  Voltare. 
Voltare,  turn. 
Zampa,  paw,  foot. 
Zampina,  little  paw. 
Zanzara,  mosquito. 
Zimbèllo,  laughing-stock. 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN    VOCABULARY. 


115 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN   VOCABULARY. 


A,  un,  uno,  una. 

Africa,  Affrica. 

After,  dòpo. 

Ago,  fa. 

Aim,  mirare. 

Air,  ària. 

All,  tutto. 

Alone,  sólo. 

Although,  sebbène. 

Al-ways,  sèmpre. 

Amaze,  meravigliare. 

America,  America. 

An,  see  A. 

Ancient,  antico. 

And,  e.  ' 

Another,  un  altro. 

April,  aprile,  m. 

Around,  intórno. 

As,  cóme. 

As  ...  as,  quanto,  tanto .  .  .  cóme. 

Asia,  Asia. 

At,  a. 

Attach,  attaccare. 

August,  agósto. 

Be,  èssere,  irreg.  (53,  a). 

Beam,  trave,  f.  or  m. 

Beast,  béstia. 

Beautiful,  bèllo. 

Because,  perchè. 

Begin,  cominciare. 

Believe,  crédere. 

Big,  gròsso. 


Bird,  uccèllo. 

Black,  néro. 

Blood,  sangue,  m. 

Boil,  bollire. 

Born,  nàto.    PL  :  nàti,  m.  ;  nate,/. 

Boy,  ragazzo. 

Branch,  rahio. 

Bread,  pane,  m. 

Brother,  fratèllo,  m. 

Bubble,  vescichetta. 

But,  ma. 

By,  da.    By  chance  =  per  caso. 

Call,  chiamare. 

Capital,  capitale,/". 

Car,  vagóne,  w. 

Care,  ciira. 

Carriage,  carròzza. 

Carry,  portare. 

Case,  caso. 

Ceiling,  palco. 

Chance,  caso.      By  chance  =  per 

caso. 
Charged,  càrico. 
Charity,  carità,/. 
Charles,  Carlo. 
Choose,  scégliere,  z'rreg: 
Christopher,  Cristoforo. 
Circle,  tóndo. 
City,  città,/. 
Cloud,  nuvola. 
Club,  bastóne,  m. 
Coat,  àbito. 


ii6 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Collect,  raccògliere,  irreg. 

Columbus,  Colómbo. 

Come  back,  tornare. 

Companion,  compagno. 

Confined,  tenuto. 

Construct,  costruire,  irreg. 

Continue,  seguitare. 

Contrary,  contràrio. 

Cool,  raffreddarsi. 

Corner,  canto. 

Country,  paese,  m. 

Cover,  coprire,  irreg. 

Creature,  animale,  tn. 

Crumb,  briciola. 

Crush,  schiacciare. 

Dark,  bùio. 

Day,  giórno. 

December,  dicembre,  m. 

Dense,  dènso. 

Department,  dipartiménto. 

Discover,  scoprire,  irreg. 

Distance,  distanza. 

Divide,  dividere,  irreg. 

Do,  fare,  irreg. 

Dominion,  dominie. 

Door,  ùscio. 

Down,  giù. 

Dream,  sognare. 

Drop,  gócciola.    Drop  by  drop  ■ 

a  gócciola  a  gócciola. 
Duke,  dùca,  m. 
Dungeon,  carcere,/. 
Dust,  pólvere,/. 
Earn,  guadagnare. 
Earth,  terra. 

Eight  hundred,  ottocento. 
Eighty,  ottanta. 
Either  ...  or,  o  ...  o. 


Emmanuel,  Emanuele. 

Emperor,  imperatóre,  m. 

Empty,  vuòto. 

End,  terminare. 

Enemy,  nemico. 

Escape,  scappare. 

Europe,  Europa. 

Even,  anche. 

Ever,  mài. 

Every,  ógni. 

Everything,  tutto. 

Everywhere,  per  tutto. 

Eye,  no2in,  òcchio. 

Eye,  vb.,  occhiare. 

Fall,  caduta. 

Family,  famiglia,/. 

Far,  lontano,  adv.  and  adj. 

Father,  padre,  m.,  babbo. 

February,  febbràio. 

Fief,  fèudo. 

Fifth,  quinto. 

Find,  trovare. 

Finger,  dito.    PL  dita,  /. 

Fire,  fuòco. 

First,  primo.    Adv..,  prima. 

Five,  cinque. 

Flat,  piatto. 

Flee,  fuggire. 

Flower,  fióre,  m. 

Fly,  volare. 

Food,  mangiare,  m. 

For,  per.    For  yourself  {conjunct 

Uve)  =  vi,  si. 
Form,  formare. 
Fort,  fortézza. 
Forth,  fuòri. 
Forty,  quaranta. 
Four,  quattro. 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN    VOCABULARY. 


117 


Pour  hundred,  quattrocento. 

France,  Frància,/. 

Friday,  venerdì,  m. 

Friend,  amico,  w.,  23,  <:,  (2). 

From,  da. 

Fruit,  frutto. 

Furniture,  mobilia. 

Genoa,  Geneva. 

Give,  dare,  irreg. 

Go,  andare,  irreg. 

Good,  buòno. 

Grain,  grano. 

Great,  grande. 

Ground,  terra. 

Grove,  boschétto. 

Grow  up,  venir  su,  irreg. 

Gun,  schiòppo,  fucile,  rn. 

Hand,  mano,/". 

Happen,  accadere,  irreg. 

Hardly,  appéna. 

Hasten,  affrettarsi. 

Hate,  odiare. 

Have,  avere,  irreg.  (53,  b). 

He,  égli,  lui. 

Heat,  caldo. 

Her,  la,  le,  lèi. 

Herb,  èrba. 

Here,  qua. 

High,  alto. 

Him,  lo,  gli,  lui.     To  him  =  gli,  a 

lui. 
Himself,  si. 
His,  suo. 
History,  stòria. 
Holiday,  fèsta. 
Honest,  onèsto. 
However,  tuttavia. 
Hunter,  cacciatóre,  m. 


1, 10. 

If,  se. 

Imagine,  immaginare. 

In,  in. 

Indeed,  davvéro. 

Inhabit,  abitare. 

Inside,  didéntro. 

Instance,  esémpio. 

Intense^vivo. 

Intention,  intenzióne,/. 

Into,  in. 

It,  lo,  la,  égli,  gli. 

Italian,  italiano. 

Italy,  Italia,/ 

Its,  suo,  sua. 

Itself,  si. 

Jailer,  carcerière,  m. 

January,  gennàio. 

July,  luglio. 

June,  giugno. 

King,  re,  m. 

Know,  sapere,  irreg.,  conóscere 
(=  òe  acquainted  with),  irreg. 

Land,  paese,  m.,  tèrra. 

Large,  grande. 

Last,  ùltimo  (^precedes  noun). 
Last  year  =  V  anno  scórso. 

Latter,  quésto.  T/te  latter  =  qué- 
sti, m.  sing. 

Leaf,  fòglia. 

Leap-year,  bisestfle,  m. 

Learn,  imparare. 

Left,  sinistra. 

Lid,  tèsto. 

Lift,  sollevare. 

Light,  luce,/ 

Like,  cóme. 

Little  (=  small),  piccolo,  piccina 


Ii8 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Little  (—  a  small  gtiatitity),  pòco. 

Little  by  little  -■  a  pòco  a  pòco. 
Iiive,  vivere,  irreg. 
Loaded,  càrico. 

Lorraine:  of  Lorraine =\oxQViést. 
Loud,  fòrte. 
Low,  basso. 
Lower,  abbassare. 
Man,  uomo,  pi.  uomini. 
Many,  mólti,  m.,  mólte,/". 
March,  marzo. 
Mask,  màschera. 
May,  màggio. 
Me,  mi,  me. 
Melon,  cocomero. 
Merchant,  mercante,  m» 
Middle,  mézzo. 
Mignonette,  amorino. 
Mine,  mio. 
Moisture,  umidità,  f» 
Monday,  lunedì,  m. 
Month,  mése,  m. 
Moon,  luna. 
More,  più. 
Mortify,  mortificare. 
Most,  il  più. 
Mr.,  signor. 
My,  mio. 
Name,  nóme,  m. 
Napoleon,  Napoleóne. 
Near,  vicino  a. 
Need,  bisógno. 
Never,  non  .  . ,  mài. 
Nice,  gentile. 
Ninety,  novanta. 
No,  no. 

Nobody  nessuno. 
Nor.  né. 


Not,  non. 

November,  novembre. 

Now,  óra. 

Object,  oggetto. 

Observe,  osservare. 

Oceanica,  Oceània. 

October,  ottóbre. 

Of,  di.     Ofthem  =  nt' 

On,  sópra,  su    {^before  vow.,  sur). 

One,  lino. 

One's  self,  si. 

Only,  sólo   (adj.),  non  .  .  .  che 

(adv.). 
Opposite,  oppósto. 
Or,  o. 

Other,  altro. 
Ought,  dovére,  irreg. 
Out,  fuòri. 
Outside,  difuòri,  m. 
Over  there,  laggiù. 
Pace,  passo. 
Parents,  genitóri,  m.  pL 
Paris,  Parigi. 
Parrot,  pappagallo. 
Part,  parte,/. 
Peasant,  contadino. 
Perfectly,  pròprio. 
Perhaps,  fórse. 
Persuade,  persuadére,  irreg» 
Philip,  Filippo. 
Place,  luògo. 
Placed,  pósto. 
Plainly,  schiettamente. 
Plant,  piànta. 
Point,  pùnto. 
Poor,  pòvero. 
Pot,  péntola. 
Present,  presentare. 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN   VOCABULARY. 


119 


Prevent,  impedire. 

Principle,  principio. 

Prison,  prigióne,/". 

Prisoner,  prigionièro. 

Profession,  professióne,/. 

Purpose,  uso. 

Quantity,  quantità,/. 

Question,  domanda. 

Rain,  piòggia. 

Raise,  levare. 

Rare,  raro. 

Recognized,  conosciuto. 

Relate,  raccontare. 

Remain,  rimanére,  irreg.^  restare. 

Repeat,  ripètere. 

Reply,  rispóndere,  irreg. 

Resolve,  risciogliere,  irreg. 

Rest,  posare. 

Right,  dèstra. 

Rise,  salire,  irreg. 

Room,  stanza. 

Root,  radice,  y. 

Round,  rotóndo. 

Rule,  signoria. 

Sacrifice,  sacrifizio. 

Sail,  navigare. 

Sailor,  marinaro. 

Same,  stésso  (^precedes  noun). 

Satisfy,  contentare. 

Saturday,  sàbato. 

Say,  dire,  irreg. 

Sea,  mare,  m. 

Second,  secóndo. 

See,  vedére,  irreg. 

Seed,  séme,  m. 

Sent,  mandato. 

September,  settèmbre,  m, 

Service,  servizio. 


Seven,  sètte. 
Shake,  scuòtere,  irr^. 
Ship,  nave,/. 
Shoot,  barba. 
Short,  córto. 

Show  off,  far  vedére,  irrég. 
Side,  parte,/. 
Silence,  silènzio. 
Sinister,  sinistro. 
Sir,  signóre,  m. 
Sixty,  sessanta. 
Sky,  cielo. 

Small,  piccolo,  piccfna 
Smoke,  fumo. 
So,  così. 
So  as  to,  per. 
Some,  qualche. 

Somebody  else,  qualchedun'  al- 
tro. 
Sometimes,  qualchevolta. 
So  much,  tanto. 
Son,  figlio. 
Sort,  sòrta. 
Spaniard,  spagnuolo. 
Speak,  parlare. 
Spider,  ragno,  ràgnolo. 
Sprouted,  germogliato. 
Stalk,  fusto. 
Star,  stélla. 
Steam,  vapóre,  m. 
Straight,  diritto. 
Study,  notin,  stùdio. 
Study,  vb.,  studiare. 
Sun,  sóle,  7Ji. 
Sunday,  doménica. 
Support,  mantenére,  irreg. 
Surprised,  sorprèso. 
Surround,  circondare. 


120 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


Table,  tàvola. 

Take,  prèndere,  irreg* 

Tear,  raschiare. 

Than,  che,  di. 

Thanks,  grazie,/*.  pU 

That,  conj.,  che. 

That,  rei.  pron.,  che. 

That,  demons,  pron.,  quello. 

The,  11,  lo,  la,  i ,  gli,  le. 

Them,  li,  le,  lóro.     0/  them—ii&. 

Then,  pòi. 

There,  là,  lì. 

Therefore,  però. 

They,  èssi,  èsse,  Idro. 

Thick,  gròsso. 

Thing,  còsa. 

Think,  pensare. 

Third,  tèrzo. 

Thirtieth,  trentesimo. 

Thirty,  tre'nta. 

Thirty-first,  trentesimo  primo. 

Thirty-one,  trentuno,  trentun. 

This,  quésto. 

Thousand,  mille. 

Three,  tre. 

Three  hundred,  trecento. 

Thursday,  giovedì,  m. 

Thus,  così. 

Time,  (^Ex.  2)  vòlta;  (^Ex.  18  and 

20)  tèmpo. 
To,  a.     To  him  =  gli. 
Together,  insieme. 
Too  (=  also),  anche. 
Too  (=  excessively)^  tròppo. 
Tree,  àlbero. 
Trunk,  trónco. 
Tuesday,  martedì,  m, 
turn,  girare. 


Tuscan,  toscano. 

Twelve,  dódici. 

Twenty-eight,  ventòtto. 

Twenty -nine,  ventinòve. 

Twig,  ramoscèllo. 

Two,  due. 

Under,  sótto. 

Unfortunate,  infelice. 

Unhappy,  sventurato. 

Union,  unióne,/". 

Unite,  raccògliere,  irreg, 

\Jntil,  prep.,  fino  a. 

Until,  conj.,  finché  . . .  non. 

Us,  nói,  ci  {conjunctive). 

Usual,  usato.     . 

Vapor,  vapóre,  fn. 

Vegetable,  vegetabile,  m. 

Very,  mólto,  tanto. 

Victor,  Vittorio. 

Villa,  villa. 

Village,  villàggio. 

Water,  acqua. 

Way  (=  manner),  maniera. 

We,  nói. 

Web,  téla. 

Wednesday,  mercoledì,  m. 

Week,  settimana. 

What,    interrog.    and   exclam^ 

che. 
What,  rei.,  quello  che. 
When,  quando. 
Where,  dóve. 
Which,  che. 
While,  méntre. 
Who,  rei.,  che. 
Whom,  rei.,  cijì. 
Willingly,  volentieri 
Wind,  vènto. 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN    VOCABULARY.  121 

Window,  finèstra.  Year,  anno. 

With,  con.  Yes,  già. 

Without,  sènza.  You,  vói,  vi,  Lei,  la,  le.     To  you 

Wood,  bòsco.  =  vi,  le. 

Word,  paróla.  Your,  vòstro,  Suo. 

Working-day,  giórno  di  lavóro.  Yourself,  vi,  si.    For  yourself  =^ 

World,  móndo.  vi,  si. 


APPENDIX, 


ADDITIONAL  NOTES   ON   PRONUNCIATION. 

[The  numbers  prefixed  to  the  following  notes  refer  to  the  paragraphs  of  the 
first  chapter  in  this  book.] 

1.  The  Tuscan  names  of  the  letters  are  :  a,  bi,  ci,  di,  é,  èffe,  gi, 
acca,  i,  jé  or  i  lungo,  èlle,  èmme,  ènne,  ò,  pi,  cu,  èrre,  èsse,  ti,  u, 
vu  or  vi,  zèta  (with  z  pronounced  dz^.  They  do  not  change  in 
the  plurah  Their  gender  is  not  fixed  ;  in  general  those  ending  in 
a  ox  e  are  considered  as  feminine,  the  others  as  mascuHne.  K,  x, 
y  are  cappa,  iccase,  ipsilon,  all  masculine. 

2.  a.  The  sounds  à,  è,  ó,  followed  by  a  single  consonant,  are 
somewhat  longer  than  the  other  vowels  :  for  instance,  in  data,  fero, 
évo  the  accented  a,  e,  o  are  longer  than  in  dàttero,  véro,  óve.  Final 
accented  vowels  sound  particularly  short  :  as  in  amò,  beltà,  caffè. 

^.  In  forming  i  the  mouth  should  be  made  as  broad  as  possible 
from  side  to  side.  For  u  and  ó  the  lips  should  be  puckered.  For 
a  and  è  the  mouth  should  be  opened  very  wide. 

3.  a.  If  an  adverb  in  -ménte  is  formed  from  an  adjective  contain- 
ing è  or  Ò,  this  vowel  has,  in  the  adverb,  a  secondary  accent,  and 
retains  its  open  sound  :  as  {brève)  brèvemente,  "briefly";  {nobile) 
nòbilmente,  "nobly."  Furthermore,  è  and  o  retain  their  quality  in 
seeming  compounds  that  consist,  in  reaHty,  of  two  or  more  sepa- 
rate words  :  as  tostoche  =  tòstochè  =  tosto  che,  "as  soon  as." 

/3.  Preterites  and  past  participles  in  -esi,  -eso,  -osi,  -oso  have  a 
close  <?  or  ^;  except  chièsi  (also  chièsi),  esplòsi,  esplòso,  lèsi  (not 
ased),  lèso. 

123 


124  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 

y.  In  the  suffixes  -eccio  {-a),  -esco  {-a),  -ese,  -essa,  -etto  {-a), 
-ezzo  {-a),  -77ient€,  and  -mento  the  e  is  ahvays  close;  while  in  the 
diminutive  suffix  -elio  {-a),  and  in  the  endings  -enle,  -enza,  -erto 
(or  -ero),  and  -esimo  {-a)  it  is  open  :  as  inglése,  *'  EngHsh  "  ;  pro- 
babilmente, "probably"  ;  prudènte,  "prudent"  ;  ventesimo,  "twen- 
tieth." ^ 

8.  In  the  endings  -oio,  -one,  -ore,  and  in  the  suffix  -oso  (-è?)  the 
o  is  close  ;  while  in  the  ending  -orio,  and  in  -occio  (-a),  -otto  (-a), 
and  -ozzo  (-a),  used  as  suffixes  to  nouns  or  adjectives,  it  is  open  : 
as  vassóio,  "  tray  "  ;  amóre,  "  love  "  ;  romitorio,  "  hermitage  "  ; 
casotta,  "  good-sized  house." 

€.  In  the  following  cases  accented  ^  or  ^  may  have  either  the 
close  or  the  open  sound  :  in  Giorgio,  maestra,  maestro,  nego  (from 
negare),  neve,  organo,  scendere,  senza,  siete  and  sono  (from  èssere), 
spegnere,  Stefano,  vendere  ;  and  in  the  conditional  endings  -esH, 
-emmo,  -este.  The  present  subjunctive  forms  dleno,  Steno,  stieno 
are  pronounced  also  dièno,  sièfto,  stièfio. 

^.  In  poetry  we  often  find  è  for  iè,  ó  for  uà  :  as  ven  =  viene, 
"  he  comes  "  ;  cor  =  cuòre,  "  heart." 

4.  C.  a.  Between  two  vowels,  of  which  the  second  is  e  or  /, 
single  c  and  single  g  are,  in  ordinary  Tuscan  speech,  pronounced 
respectively  like  sh  in  "ship"  and  si  in  "vision":  as  pace, 
"peace";  stagióne,  "season." 

p.  Between  two  vowels,  of  which  the  second  is  a,  0,  or  u,  a 
single  c  is,  in  popular  Tuscan  speech,  sounded  nearly  like  Eng- 
lish h  :  as  poco  (poko),  "little"  ;  di  questa  cosa  {di  hwésta  hòsa), 
"  of  this  thing."    This  pronunciation  is  regarded  as  vulgar. 

J.  Some  writers  use  /,  except  after  a  consonant,  for  the  /  that 
is  pronounced  y  :  as  jeri  for  ièri,  "  yesterday  "  ;  pq/o  for  pàio, 
"pair."  It  is  sometimes  used  also  for  final  i  in  the  plural  of 
words  in  unaccented  -io  :  as  specchj  (also  specchi  and  occasionally 
specchii)  for  spècchi,  "  mirrors,"  plural  of  spècchio. 

Z.  Aside  from  verbs  in  -izzàre,  z  and  zz  have  the  value  dz  in  the 
following  words  and  their  derivatives  :  — 


ADDITIONAL    NOTES   ON   PRONUNCIATION. 


125 


arzillo 

frizzo 

magazzino 

romanzo 

zèlo 

azztirro 

garzóne 

manzo 

ronzio 

zenit 

barzeUetta 

gazzella 

mézzo 

rózzo 

zèro 

bizza 

gazzétta 

orizzónte 

zaffiro 

zèta 

brézza 

gónzo 

orzo 

zaffiróne 

zinco 

brónzo 

Làzzaro 

penzolo 

zanzara 

zodiaco 

donzella 

lazzeretto 

pranzo 

zèbra 

zólla 

dozzina 

lazzo 

ribrézzo 

zaffiro 

zdna 

also  in  ali  derivatives  of  the  Greek  zoosj  and  in  many  uncommon 
words. 

5.  In  pronouncing  gli  and  gn  the  point  of  the  tongue  should 
remain  behind  the  lower  teeth  :  as  figlio,  " son"  ;  ógni,  "every." 

6.  If  one  of  the  words  mentioned  below,  or  any  oxytone  ending 
in  a  vowel,  is  closely  followed  by  a  word  beginning  with  a  conso- 
nant, this  consonant  is,  in  Tuscany,  generally  pronounced  double. 
The  words  are  :*  — 


a 

òìyday 

giù 

o§ 

sópra 

Che 

di',  say 

ha 

più 

stat 

Chi 

e 

ho 

qua 

sto 

ciò 

è 

fnfra 

qualche 

su 

cóme 

fat 

intra 

qui 

tet 

contra 

fé,  faith 

là 

re 

tra 

da 

fé'  =  fece 

li 

sa 

tre 

dà,  gives 

fo 

ma 

se,»/ 

tu 

da',  give 

fra 

mej 

sé 

vat 

do 

fu 

mo*  =  modo 

si 

vo  =  vado 

dóve 

già 

né 

so 

vo'  =  voglio 

Ex.  :  verrà  da  me  domani  {verràddamméddomàni) ,  "he  will  come 
to  my  house  to-morrow."  In  such  cases  e  is,  of  course,  never 
pronounced  like  h  (see  4,  c,  )8) . 


*  The  materials  for  this  list  were  taken  from  D'  Ovidio's  article  in  Grober's 
Grundriss  der  romanischen  Pkilologie,  p.  496. 

t  Both  the  imperative  sing,  and  the  pres.  ind.  third  sing. 

X  The  disjunctive  form. 

§  Both  the  conjunction  "  or  "  and  the  interrogative  particle. 


26  ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


INFLECTIONS   OF   THE  VOICE. 

1.  Italian  speech  is  at  once  smoother  and  less  monotonous  than 
American  :  it  is  less  interrupted  by  breathings,  and  it  has  far 
greater  variations  of  pitch.  In  order  to  speak  or  read  Italian  well, 
an  American  must  learn  to  breathe  in  speaking  as  he  does  in  sing- 
ing ;  he  must  inhale  deeply  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause,  and  not 
stop  again  until  he  reaches  the  end  of  it.  The  following  directions 
may  be  of  use  ;  they  are  based  on  the  Tuscan  pronunciation,  and 
particularly  on  that  of  Siena. 

2.  a.  The  simplest  inflection  in  a  declarative  sentence  is  as  fol- 
lows :  at  the  beginning  the  voice  is  pitched  low  ;  it  rises  in  the 
middle  (in  earnest  conversation  often  to  a  falsetto),  and  falls 
again  at  the  end.  The  most  emphatic  word  generally  receives 
the  highest  tone  ;  if  there  are  no  words  after  it  to  complete  the 
cadence,  the  first  words  of  the  phrase  are  often  repeated  at  the 
end  :  as  me  lo  dicono  tutti  me  lo  dicono  ("they  all  tell  me  so  "), 
where  the  u  of  tutti  is  an  octave  higher  than  the  beginning  and 
the  close  of  the  sentence. 

/8.  When  there  is  a  pause  on  some  not  particularly  emphatic  word 
before  the  main  verb,  that  word  has  a  slight  circumflex  accent,  the 
voice  rising  about  one  semitone  and  falling  about  three  :  as  fuori 
di  città  s  e'  è  una  bellissima  villa  \  ("  outside  the  city  there's  a 
beautiful  villa"),  where  bellissima  has  the  high  pitch,  and  the  a  of 
città  has  the  circumflex.  This  accent  is  generally  heard  whenever 
modifying  clauses  or  phrases  precede  the  main  clause. 

y.  Almost  all  declarative  sentences  are  made  up  chiefly  of  these 
two  inflections,  the  long  rise  and  fall  and  the  short  circumflex. 
Americans  must  avoid  breaking  up  their  sentences  by  meaningless 
falling  tones.  The  fall  occurs  in  Italian,  as  in  EngHsh,  on  a  very 
emphatic  word,  and  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.  It  is  used,  also, 
with  a  verb  of  saying  or  thinking,  followed  by  a  direct  quotation  ; 


INFLECTIONS    OF    THE    VOICE.  127 

and  with  any  word  or  phrase  used  as  a  vocative,  except  in  loud 
calling  (see  4,  /3)  :  as  allóra  chiama  Alfredo  e  gli  dice  \  ;  Bam- 
bino \  ,  dimmi  la  verità  \  {Grammar,  Exercise  17),  where  the 
syllables/r^,  barn,  and  dim  have  the  highest  pitch. 

3.  a.  Questions  to  which  the  answer  may  be  "yes"  or  "no" 
have  either  one  of  two  circumflex  accents  :  in  the  first  the  voice 

'rises  about  five  semitones  and  falls  one  ;  in  the  second,  which  is 
sometimes  used  in  reading  and  in  polite  phrases,  the  voice  rises 
and  falls  about  an  octave.  Ex.  :  /'  hai  visto  ("  have  you  seen 
him?"),  where  the  pitches  of  /'  hai,  vi,  and  sto  may  be  represented 
by  the  notes  do,  fa,  mi;  ha  ben  dormito  ("did  you  sleep  well?"), 
where  mi  is  an  octave  higher  than  dor  and  to.  The  former  accent 
may  be  heard  in  the  Irish  pronunciation  of  English. 

/8.  These  inflections  are  nearly  always  confined  to  the  last  few 
syllables  of  the  sentence.  In  some  questions,  however,  they 
appear  twice,  generally  occurring  first  on  the  verb;  and  occa- 
sionally the  circumflex  on  the  verb  is  the  only  one. 

y.  Questions  that  cannot  be  answered  by  "  yes  "  or  "  no  "  usu- 
ally begin  high,  the  pitch  depending  on  the  emphasis.  The  voice 
then  falls,  but  generally  rises  again  at  the  last  syllable,  going  up 
about  three  semitones  :  as  0  cóme  \  hai  fatto  /  ("  how  did  you  do 
it?").  This  accent  is  common  among  the  Irish,  and  may  be 
heard  in  England.  The  final  rise  is,  however,  often  omitted, 
especially  in  very  short  sentences  and  in  polite  phrases  :  as  cóme 
sta  \  ("  how  do  you  do  ?  ") .  • 

4.  a.  Exclamations  of  surprise  begin  very  high,  and  sink  rap- 
idly :  as  senti  \  ("  no  !  "  *  )  ;  un  affàr  di  niènte  \  ("  you  don't  say 
so  !  "*),  where  un  has  the  main  stress  ;  per  mio  bacco  ("I  want  to 
know  !  "  *),  with  the  accent  on  per. 

ft.  In  caUing  to  persons  at  a  distance,  the  Tuscans  sing  rather 
than  speak  ;  the  usual  tune  is  do,  la,  sol,  the  accented  syllable  being 
highest  :  as  Agostina  ("Augustine  ! ")  ;  partenza  ("all  aboard  !  "). 

*  Popular  New  England  equivalents. 


INDEX. 


[The  numbers  refer  to  paragraphs.    Ap.  N.  means  "  Appendix,  Additional  Notes  on  Pro 
nunciation";  Ap.  V.  stands  for  "  Appendix,  Inflections  of  the  Voice."] 


A  (letter)  :  2;   Ap.  N.,  2. 

A  (preposition)  :  79;   79,  3,  h. 

Accent:    7;    47;    48;    84;   92,  e\ 

Ap.  V. 
Accents:  3;  7. 
Address  (Forms  of)  :  52. 
Adjectives:  26-34. 

Comparison:  31-34. 

Gender:  26;   28. 

Number;  26;  29. 

Position  :  27. 

Used  as  nouns  :  20;  30. 
Adverbs:  80-85. 

O',  vi:  47,  a;  84. 

Comparison  :  80,  2. 

Manner:  85. 

Ne  :  47,  a;   56,  h. 

Never  :  83. 

Not,  non:  80,  i;   81;  91,  a. 

(?«/)/.•  82. 

Position:  80,  I. 

So  :  85,  a. 
AU:  87. 

Alphabet:  i;  Ap.  N.,  I. 
Altrui  :  Qi,  d. 
Any:  88. 
Articlea:  9-16. 

Definite  :  see  Definite. 

liidefinite  :  see  Indefinite. 
Augmentatives  :  35-37. 


Auxiliary  Verbs  :  53-57. 
Avere:  53,  3;    54,3. 
Essere:  53,  a;   54,  i,  3- 
Compound  tenses  :  54;  56. 
Modal  auxiliaries  :  57. 

Avere:  53,-^;  54,3;  54» '^;  92,5- 

« 

Be:  53,  a\   54,  I,  3;   54,  a,  c,  d,  f; 

92,  126. 
Bello  :  29,  c. 
Both:  38,4;   91. 
Buono:  29,  c. 

Can  :  see  Modal  Auxiliaries. 

Ci  (adv.)  :  47,  a;   84. 

Ci  (pron.)  :  47-50. 

Close  Vowels:  3;  Ap.  N.,  3. 

Comparison  :  31-34;  80,  2. 

Adjectives:  31-34. 

Adverbs:  80,  2. 

Irregular:  31,  a;   80,2. 
Compoimd  Tenses:  54;  56;  73; 

75- 
Conditional:  54,2;  62>,b;  76;  77; 
92,  c. 
Contracted:  65;  66,  i;  92,  r. 
Conjugation:  53-68;  92. 
First:  59. 
Second:  60. 
Third:  60. 

129 


130 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Fourth:  6i. 

Variations:  63;  66,  a;  68. 

Irregular  verbs  :  64-68;  92. 

Auxiliary  verbs  :  53-57. 

Compound  tenses  :  54;   56. 

Compound  verbs:  67,  a;  93,  a. 
Conjunctions:   78. 

With  subjunctive  :  77,^;  78,  a,  <J. 
Consonants:  4-6;  Ap.  N.,  4-6. 
Contraction:  12;  23  (f);  5o(*); 
63,^;  65;  66,  i;  68,  a. 

Da:  79,c,/,g. 
Dates  :  38,  Ò;  39,  è. 
Definite  Article  :  10-13. 

Form:   10-12. 

Use:    12,  a;    13;    38, /J;   39,0; 
45;   69;   70. 
Di:   12;    17;    n%b,z,f,h,j. 
Diminutives:  35-37. 
Do:  54,^. 
Double  Letters  :  6. 
Doubling:  48,  af;  93,^;  Ap.  N.,  6. 

E  (letter):  3;  68,  t,/;  Ap.  N.,  3. 
E  (conjunction)  :  78;   78,  c. 
Ecco:   48,  e-y   84,  a. 
Essere:  53,  a;  54,  i,  3;   54,  a,c,d; 

92,  126. 
Exclamations  :  43,  ^j    79,  b\  Ap. 

v.,  4. 

For:  79,^. 
Fractions  :  39,  c. 
Future  :  54,  2;  68,  c\  74;  77. 
Contracted:  65;  66,  i. 

Gender:  9-1 1;  14-15;  18-21  ;  26; 

28. 
Grande  :  29,  c. 


H:  4;   22,  a;   23,  a,  c\   59,  a. 
Have:  53,  <5;  54,3;  54,  ^,  A;  11,  a-, 

92,5- 
Here:  84. 

I  (letter)  :    2;    22,  b;    23,  b\    59^  o; 

60;  92,  /;  Ap.  N.,  2. 
I  (euphonic)  :  79;  81. 
Imperative  :  66,  b\   72;   77,  a. 
Imperfect  : 

Form:  63;   63,  f;   65;   6%,a,h. 

Use:  54,^,^;  73;  75-  [77,^- 
Impersonal  Verbs:  51;  51,  /4; 
Indefinite  Article  :  14-16. 

Form:   14-15. 

Use:   16;   38,  i;   43,  b. 
Infinitive  :  48,  b-,  58;  69-72. 

Contracted:  65. 
Inflections  of  the  voice  :  Ap.  V. 
Interrogation  :  see  Questions. 
Issimo  (suffix)  :  35,  a. 
It:  47;   51;   51,^- 

Letters:  i;  Ap.  N.,  i. 

May  :  see  Modal  Auxiliaries. 
Modal  Auxiliaries  :  57. 
Moods:  57;   69-77;   78,  «• 

Conditional:   54,2;   65;    66,1; 
68,  b;   76;   77. 

Imperative:  66,^;   72;   77,  fl. 

Infinitive:  48,(5;  58;  65;  69-72. 

Participle:  54,  a,  ^;  62;   63,0^; 
69-71. 

Subjunctive:  44,^;   77;   78,  fl. 
Must  :  see  Modal  Auxiliaries. 
Myself,  thyself,  etc.  :  47,  2;  51,  e. 

Ne  (adv.)  :  47,  a;   56,  b\  84. 

Ne  (pron.)  :  47,  3;  48;  49;  88;  89. 


INDEX. 


131 


Neuter  Verbs:  54,  3;  56,  a. 

Never:  83, 

Non:  80,  I;   81;   91,  a. 

Not:  80,  i;   81. 

Nouns:   17-25. 

Gender:   18-2 1. 

Number:  22-25. 
Number:  9-1 1;  22-25;  29. 
Numerals:  38-40. 

Cardinal:  38. 

Ordinal:  39. 

O  (letter)  :  3;  59.  ^5  Ap.  N.,  3. 

O  (conjunction)  :  78;   78,  c. 

Old  Forms:  19 (t);  23(t);47(*); 

48,^;  5o(*);  63,^;  66,  a; 

68;  92;  Ap.  N.,  3,  C 
One  (indefinite)  :  55  ;  86. 
Only:  82. 

Open  Vowels:  3;  Ap.  N.,  3. 
Ought  :  see  Modal  Aiuciliariea. 

Participle:    54,  a,  b;    62;    63,  d; 
69-71. 

Past:  54,5,  3;   63,^;   71,^. 

Present:  62;   69-71. 
Partitive  Genitive:  12, a-,  88;  89. 
Passive:  54,1;  54,/;  55;  56,  r. 
Perfect  Tenses:   54,  3;    56;    73; 

75- 
Personal  Pronouns  :  46-52. 
Conjunctive:  47-50. 

Form:    47;    48,  <:,  </;     50 ; 

52,1. 
Position:  48;  49. 
Disjunctive:  51-52. 

Omission:  51,2;   51,^. 
Use:  51;   51,  i;   $1,0,  b,h. 
Pitch  :  Ap.  V. 
Plural:  22-25;  29. 


Irregular  :  23,  d;   25. 

Words  in  -co  and  -go  :  23,  c. 
Poetic  Forms  :  see  Old. 
Possessive:  17;  45;  52,1. 
Prefixes  :  93,  a. 
Prepositions:  79. 

Da:  79,^,/^. 

To:^g,a,b.  [74. 

Present:  65;   66,4;  6^,  f,  g;   73; 
Preterite:    60;    65;    66,  2,  3;    68, 

^,  <?;  75- 
Preterite  Perfect  :  54,3;  75. 
Pronouns:  41-52;  86-91. 

Demonstrative  :  42. 

Indefinite:  86-91. 

Interrogative,  43. 

Personal  :  see  Personal. 

Possessive  :  see  Possessive. 

Reciprocal  :  see  Reciprocal. 

Reflexive  :  see  Reflexive. 

Relative:  44.      ^^^ 
Pronimciation  :  1-8;  Ap.  N.,  i-6; 
Ap.  V. 

Quantity  :  2;  Ap.  N.,  2. 
Qualche  :  29,  b;  89. 
Questions:    43;    51,  2;    77,  /  g; 

79,  b;   81,  a;   Ap.  V.,  3. 

Reciprocal  pronouns  and  verbs: 
47,  2;  48;  49;  50;  51,  3; 
51,/;   52,  i;   56,3. 

Reflexive  Pronouns:  47,  2;  48; 
49;  50;  51.3;  52,  i;  55; 

56,  b;   63,  a;   86. 
Reflexive  Verbs  :  55;  56,^;  63,^7; 
86. 

Santo  :  29,  c. 
ShaU  :  54,  2;  57. 


132 

Shotad:  54,2;  57;  76;  77. 

Si:   47-50;   52;   55;   56,  h'>  63,  a-y 

86. 
So:  85,  a. 
Some:  89. 
Spelling:  1-8. 

Subjunctive:  44,  r;  77;  78,0. 
Suffixes:  35-37;  85;  Ap.  N.,3. 
SyUables:  8. 

Tenses  : 

Compound:     54;     56;     73; 

75. 

Future  :  see  Future. 

Imperfect  :  see  Imperfect. 

Present  :  see  Present. 

Preterite  :  see  Preterite. 
Than:  33. 
There:  84. 
Time  of  day  :  38,  c. 
To:  79,  a,  ^. 

U  (letter)  :  2;  Ap.  N^  2. 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


Verbs:  53-77;  92;  93. 

Auxiliary  verbs  :  see  Auxiliary. 
Conjugation  :  see  Conjugation. 
Lists  of  irregular  verbs  :  92;  93. 
Alphabetical:  93. 
By  conjugations  :  92. 
Moods  :  see  Moods. 
Tenses  :  see  Tenses. 
Regular  verbs  :  55-56;  59-63. 
Irregular  verbs  :  64-68;  92. 

Regular  parts  :  66. 

Compound    verbs:     67,  ^z; 

93»  «• 
Old  forms:  63,  </;   68;  92. 
Vi  (adv.)  :  47,  <z;  84. 
Vowels:  2-3;  Ap.  N.,  2-3. 

"Whatever  :  44,  c. 

ViThoever  :  44,  c. 

"Will:  54,2;   57. 

Would:  54,2;  54,^;  57;  76;  77. 


You:  52;  86. 


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INTERMEDIATE  FRENCH  TEXTS.     (Partial  List.) 

Lamartine's  Scenes  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise  (Super).    Vocab.    40  ct» 

Launartine's  Graziella  (Warren).     35  cts. 

Lamartine's  Jeanne  d'Are  (Barrerà).     Vocabulary.     35  cts. 

Erckmann-Chatrian's  Madame  Thérèse  (Manley).    Vocabulary.    40  cts. 

•Michelet:  Ertraits  de  I'histoire  de  France  (Wright).    30  cts. 

Hugo's  La  Chute.     From  Les  Mise radUs  (Kuss).     Vocabulary.    30  cts. 

Hugo's  Bug  Jargal  (Boielle).    40  cts. 

Hugo's  Quatre-vingt-treize  (Fontaine).    Vocabulary.     50  cts. 

Champfleury's  Le  Violon  de  Faience  (Bévenot).    25  cts. 

Gautier's  Voyage  en  Espagne  (Steel).    25  cts. 

Balzac's  Le  Cure  de  Tours  (Super).     Vocabulary.    30  cts. 

Balzac:  Cinq  Scenes  de  la  Comédie  Humaine  (Wells).    40  cts. 

Contes  des  Romanciers  Naturalistes  (Dow  and  Skinner).    Vocab.    55  ct* 

Gréville'S  Dosia  (Hamilton).     Vocabulary.     45  cts. 

Daudet's  Le  Petit  Chose  (Super).    Vocabulary.    40  cts. 

Daudet's  La  Belle-Nivemaise  (Boielle).    Vocabulary.    30  cts. 

Theuriet's  Bigarreau  (Fontaine).    25  cts. 

Mosset:  Trois  Comedies  (McKenzie).    30  cts. 

Maupassant:  Huit  Contes  Choisis  (White).    Vocabulary.     30  cts. 

Taine's  L' Ancien  Regime  (Giese).    Vocabulary.    65  cts. 

Advanced  Selections  for  Sight  Translation  (Colin).    15  cts. 

Pe  Tocqueville's  Voyage  en  Amérique  (Ford).    Vocabulary.    40  cts. 

Dumas*  La  Question  d' Argent  (Henning).    30  cts. 

Lesage*8  Gil  Bias  (Sanderson).    40  cts. 

Sarcey's  Le  Siege  de  Paris  (Spiers).    Vocabulary,  45  cts. 

About's  La  Mère  de  la  Marquise  (Brush).    Vocabulary.    40  cts. 

Chateaubriand's  Atala  (Kuhns).    Vocabulary.    30  cts. 

Erckmann-Chatrian's  Le  Juif  Polonais  (Manley).    Vocabulary.    3c  cts. 

Feuillet's  Roman  d'un  jeune  homme  pauvre  (Bruner).    Vocab.    55  eta 

Labiche's  La  Cagnotte  (Famsworth).    25  cts. 

La  Brète's  Mon  Oncle  et  Mon  Cure  (Colin).    Vocabulary.    45  cts. 

Dumas'  La  Tulipe  Noire  (Fontaine).     40  cts.     Vocabulary.     50  ctS. 

Toltaire's  Zadig  (Babbitt).     Vocabulary.    45  cts. 


t)eatb's  /IDoòern  Xanauaoe  Sertes. 

ADVANCED  FRENCH  TEXTS. 

Balzac's  Le  Pére  Goriot  (Sanderson).    80  cts. 

Hugo's  Hemani  (Matzke),    60  cts. 

Hugo's  Les  Misérables  (Super).    Abridged.    80  cts. 

Hugo's  Poems  (Schinz).     80  cts. 

Hugo's  Ruy  Bias  (Garner).     65  cts. 

Racine's  Andromaque  (Wells).    30  cts. 

Racine's  Athalie  (Eggert).    30  cts. 

Racine's  Esther  (Spiers).     25  cts. 

Racine's  Les  Plaideurs  (Wright).     30  cts. 

Racine's  Phèdre  (Babbitt).     30  cts. 

Comeille's  Le  Cid  (Warren).    30  cts. 

Comeille's  Cinna  (Matzke).    30  cts. 

Comeille's  Horace  (Matzke).    30  cts. 

Comeille's  Polyeucte  (tortier).    30  cts. 

Molière 's  L'Avare  (Levi).    35  cts. 

Molière's  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme  (Warren).    30  cts. 

Molière's  Le  Misanthrope  (Eggert).     30  cts. 

Molière's  Les  Femmes  Savantes  (Fortier).    30  cts. 

Molière's  Le  Tartuffe  (Wright).    30  cts. 

Molière's  Le  Médecin  Malgré  Lui  (Gasc).     15  cts. 

Molière's  Les  Précieuses  Ridicules  (Toy).    25  cts. 

Bornier's  La  Fille  de  Roland  (Nelson).    30  cts. 

Rostand's  La  Princesse  Lointaine  (Borgerhoff).    40  cts. 

Piron's  La  Métromanie  (Delbos).    40  cts. 

Boileau:  Selections  (Kuhns).     50  cts. 

Bossuet:  Selections  (Warren).     50  cts. 

Diderot:  Selections  (Giese).    50  cts. 

La  Bruyère  :  Les  Caractères  (Warren).     50  cts. 

Pascal:  Selections  (Warren).     50  cts. 

Lamartine's  Meditations  (Carme).     55  cts. 

Lesage's  Turcaret  (Kerr).     30  cts. 

Taine's  Introduction  à  l'Hist.  de  la  Litt.  Anglaise.     20  cts. 

Duval's  Histoire  de  la  Littérature  Frangaise.    $1.00. 

Delpit's  L'Àge  d'Or  de  la  Littérature  Frangaise.    90  cts. 

Voltaire's  Prose  (Cohn  and  Woodward).    $1.00. 

French  Prose  of  the  XVIIth  Century  (Warren).    $1.00. 

Maitres  de  la  Critique  lit.  au  XIXe  Siede  (Comfort).     50  cts. 

La  Triade  Frangaise.     Poems  of  Lamartine,  Musset.  and  Hugo.     75  cts. 

ROMANCE  PHILOLOGY. 

Introduction  to  Vulgar  Latin    (Grandgent).    $1.50. 
:!?»-ovensal  Phonology  and  Morphology  (Grandgent).    $1.50. 


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